Self-fulfilling prophecies: the synergistic accumulative effect of parents' beliefs on children's drinking behavior

This research examined whether mothers' and fathers' beliefs about their children's alcohol use had cumulative self-fulfilling effects on their children's future drinking behavior. Analyses of longitudinal data acquired from 115 seventh-grade children and their mothers and fathers were consistent with synergistic accumulation effects for negative beliefs: Parents' beliefs predicted the greatest degree of confirmatory behavior from children when both mothers and fathers overestimated their children's alcohol use. Results did not support synergistic accumulation effects for positive beliefs: Children's predicted future alcohol use was similar regardless of whether one parent or both underestimated their child's alcohol use. These findings suggest that the generally small self-fulfilling effects reported in the literature may underestimate the power of negative self-fulfilling prophecies to harm targets because studies have not taken into consideration the possibility that negative self-fulfilling prophecies may be more likely than positive ones to accumulate across multiple perceivers.     

The mediation of mothers' self-fulfilling effects on their children's alcohol use: self-verification, informational conformity, and modeling processes

This research examined whether self-fulfilling prophecy effects are mediated by self-verification, informational conformity, and modeling processes. The authors examined these mediational processes across multiple time frames with longitudinal data obtained from two samples of mother-child dyads (N-sub-1 = 486; N-sub-2 = 287), with children's alcohol use as the outcome variable. The results provided consistent support for the mediational process of self-verification. In both samples and across several years of adolescence, there was a significant indirect effect of mothers' beliefs on children's alcohol use through children's self-assessed likelihood of drinking alcohol in the future. Comparatively less support was found for informational conformity and modeling processes as mediators of mothers' self-fulfilling effects. The potential for self-fulfilling prophecies to produce long-lasting changes in targets' behavior via self-verification processes are discussed.     

Self-fulfilling prophecy effects of mothers' beliefs on children's alcohol use: accumulation, dissipation, and stability over time

This research examined whether self-fulfilling prophecy effects accumulated, dissipated, or remained stable over time in terms of 2 complementary conceptual models. Analyses of longitudinal data from 2 samples of mother-child dyads (N(1) = 487; N(2) = 288) yielded 3 main findings. First, the degree to which mothers' inaccurate beliefs assessed at a single point in time predicted children's distal alcohol use did not differ from the degree to which they predicted children's proximal alcohol use, thereby supporting a pattern of stability for the samples on average. Second, mothers' inaccurate beliefs repeatedly assessed across time had additive self-fulfilling effects on their children's subsequent alcohol use assessed at a single later point in time. Third, these additive self-fulfilling effects served to exacerbate differences in the alcohol use of children who had been consistently exposed to unfavorable versus favorable beliefs year after year. The authors discuss these findings in terms of the link between self-fulfilling prophecies and social problems.     

Health locus of control and self-esteem as related to adolescent health behavior and intentions

A health behavior and attitudes questionnaire was administered to 246 fifth-grade and 265 sixth-grade students during class time. The questions included 20 children's health locus of control (CHLC) items reported by Parcel and Meyer (1978), 17 children's self-esteem (CSE) items modified from those reported by Coopersmith (1967), and questions concerning past and current behavior and future intentions with respect to cigarette smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use. The results indicate that the relationships between dimensions of children's health locus of control and self-esteem and their behaviors and intentions are not large enough to suggest that intervention programs directed at the prevention of detrimental health behaviors focus on the enhancement of self-esteem or the internal locus of control. An appropriate test of the efficacy of such an approach requires a longitudinal rather than a cross-sectional study, monitoring changes in the levels of self-esteem and health locus of control and associated changes in health behavior.     

Relationship specificity of aggressogenic thought-behavior processes

The purpose of this longitudinal study was to examine the relationship specificity of aggressogenic thought-behavior processes and to investigate the role of self-esteem in translating or inhibiting aggressogenic thought into aggression toward personally liked and disliked targets. Participants (186 Finnish boys and girls; 11-12 years old at Time 1) completed measures twice over a 1-year interval. We assessed children's attributions of hostility, relational goals, expectations of anger, and self-efficacy at Time 1 as well as aggression, at both time points, toward their previously identified liked and disliked peers. Our results mostly supported our hypothesis that cognitions guide behavior mainly within the relationship context. Moreover, high self-esteem potentiated cognition-behavior links toward children's own liked peer but inhibited the actualization of aggressogenic thought toward children's disliked peer. These findings highlight the importance of taking a Person × Situation approach when studying cognition-behavior processes.     

Adolescents' academic expectations and achievement

Previous research has indicated that adolescents' relationships with their mother influence their academic expectations and achievement. Substance use has also been found to have a strong influence on academic expectations and achievement. In the present study, 80 high school seniors from middle to upper socioeconomic status families completed questionnaires on behavioral and psychological aspects of adolescent life. Academic expectations were found to be highly correlated with academic achievement (r = .60). A stepwise regression analysis revealed that relationship with mother, academic achievement, and alcohol use accounted for 56% of the total variance in academic expectations. Stepwise regression on academic achievement revealed that cocaine use, marijuana use, and academic expectations accounted for 48% of the total variance.     

母亲行为与小学儿童自尊的关系

选取3、4、5年级学生和他们的母亲各694人,采用小学儿童母亲行为问卷、自尊问卷(SEI)与小学儿童母亲背景问卷进行施测,对小学儿童自尊与其母亲行为之间的关系进行了探讨。结果表明:(1)在小学3-5年级儿童中,自尊得分与母亲的各种支持行为之间的相关均不显著;除母亲陪伴性和情感性的不支持行为外,工具性、信息性和极端性的不支持行为与自尊得分之间呈现出显著或极其显著的负相关;不支持行为变量组对儿童的自尊水平具有极其显著的预测作用,而支持行为变量并未引起回归方程的显著变化。(2)宽松型、支配干涉型、温暖型与严厉型母亲行为教养下的儿童自尊得分具有显著的差异,其中宽松型母亲教养下的儿童自尊明显高于严厉型。(3)母亲的行为类型与儿童的年龄、性别、独生与否及母亲的年龄、职业与受教育水平、城乡因素在儿童自尊上均不存在显著的交互作用。     

Downward Social Comparison in the Minimal Intergroup Situation: A Test of a Self-Enhancement Interpretation1

We tested some implications of Wills' (1981) downward comparison interpretation of ingroup bias in the minimal intergroup paradigm. Based on a self-enhancement interpretation of ingroup bias, we predicted that subjects who expected to succeed on a task for dispositional reasons and subsequently failed would be most threatened by the feedback and hence, would engage in downward social comparison strategies. The results did not support the self-enhancement interpretation, but a number of interesting findings emerged. First, downward social comparison involving favorable comparisons of the ingroup relative to the outgroup was pervasive and not mediated by self-esteem. Second, ingroup bias was greatest when individuals' outcomes were consistent with their expectations; ingroup bias was mitigated when subjects received feedback that was inconsistent with their expectations. Third, although low self-esteem subjects rated members of the outgroup more negatively than did high self-esteem subjects, high self-esteem subjects engaged in more downward social comparison by enhancing the self relative to both members of the outgroup and their own ingroup. Finally, self-enhancement strategies were affected by performance expectations, attributions, and chronic self-esteem: People who expected to perform well because of stable, dispositional reasons and who were high in self-esteem showed the greatest tendency to engage in self-enhancing comparisons with others. This was true regardless of whether subjects ultimately succeeded or failed on the important task and regardless of whether the comparison others were members of the outgroup or the ingroup.     

Effects of early alcohol use on adolescents' relations with peers and self-esteem: patterns over time

Strain or problem-solving models posit that deviance persists because it enhances youths' psychosocial properties and is therefore functional for adolescents. However, empirical tests of this assumption have been limited to determining whether a moderately social activity like delinquency produces time-ordered changes in self-esteem. This research examines whether a highly social activity like alcohol use improves adolescents' relations with peers and self-esteem over time. The results of a four-year panel study show that the effects of early alcohol use are limited to enhancing peer relations only among adolescents who use alcohol in order to be part of the group. Early alcohol consumption also has a delayed effect on boosting self-esteem, but this effect is restricted to youths who equate drinking with sophistication. The lack of generality of these findings and how the psychological functions of drinking might cancel these effects are discussed.     

9～11岁儿童对失败学习情景的情绪反应和情绪表达研究

本研究对180名9-11岁儿童在失败学习情景下的情绪反应和情绪表达进行了研究。结果表明：(1)儿童在失败学习情景中情绪表达的意愿受年龄影响。(2)儿童在失败学习情景中的情绪表达原因受年龄和观众背景影响。儿童隐藏情绪的原因主要是害怕消极的后果,表达情绪的原因是为了得到积极的结果。(3)儿童在失败学习情景中情绪表达和隐藏的策略受年龄、性别和观众背景的影响。(4)儿童的后继行为受年龄的影响。     

Distressed and nondistressed third- and sixth-grade children's self-reports of life events and impact and concordance with mothers

This study examined the concordance of third- and Sixth-grade distressed and nondistressed children's self-reports of the occurrence and perceived impact of life events that had occurred during the preceding 12 months with their mothers' perceptions. The study also examined whether maternal self-reports of dysphoria affects concordance between mother/child dyads on children's self-reports of occurrence and perceived impact of life events. Eighty-eight mother/child dyads, matched on Children's Depression Inventory scores, grade, sex, race, and school were included. Results indicated that distressed children endorsed more items on the Coddington Life Events Record (LER), and perceived them more negatively, than nondistressed children. Small, but statistically significant concordance rates were found between dyads on the occurrence of life events and the perceived impact of these events: Distressed children and their mothers had more mutually endorsed items than nondistressed children and mothers, and third-grade children had higher concordance rates with their mothers when compared to sixth-grade children. Third-grade children also appeared to commit more errors of commission on the LER. Finally, Maternal distress mediated mother/child concordance. Possible explanations for these results and future research directions are discussed.     

Self-knowledge defenses to self-threats

We examined whether people use both shifts in the spontaneous self-concept (self-knowledge content) and in self-concept clarity (self-knowledge structure) to defend against salient self-threats, and identified relevant moderators of this process. In Study 1, women emphasized relational self-aspects in response to mortality salience, compared to men. In Study 2, high self-esteem individuals showed more polarized self-knowledge after mortality salience, while in Study 3 they became faster in their self-categorizations when faced with uncertainty, and more consistent and faster in their self-categorizations when faced with isolation, relative to those with low self-esteem. In the discussion, we focus on how these outcomes can be interpreted as meaning maintenance, clarify the role of self-esteem, and offer directions for future research.     

Inter-relationships among attachment to mother and father, self-esteem, and career indecision

This study investigated the mediating role of adolescents’ global self-esteem, based on the relationship between adolescents’ mother or father attachment and their career indecision; as well as the mediating role of adolescents’ career indecision on the relationship between mother or father attachment and self-esteem. Two hundred and forty-one adolescents completed a self-report questionnaire that measured the difficulty in making decisions about their future academic and vocational careers, their global self-esteem, and their attachment to their parents. Results showed that the more adolescents felt attached to their mother and father the easier it was for them to make career decisions. The self-esteem mediation hypothesis is supported as a function of parent and adolescent gender. Similarly, the mediating role of career indecision is confirmed and depends on the gender of both parents and adolescents. Interpersonal context, identity development, adolescent career development and the relationship between them are discussed.     

Discrepancies Between Explicit and Implicit Self-Esteem: Implications for Mate Retention Strategies and Perceived Infidelity

ABSTRACT

The purpose of the present study was to examine whether the association between explicit self-esteem and relationship outcomes was moderated by implicit self-esteem. This was accomplished by asking 210 undergraduates who were currently involved in romantic relationships to complete measures of their explicit self-esteem, implicit self-esteem, mate retention strategies, and likelihood of future infidelity. Implicit self-esteem was found to moderate the association between high explicit self-esteem and relationship outcomes for male participants such that men with discrepant high self-esteem (i.e., high explicit self-esteem but low implicit self-esteem) reported less use of mate retention strategies and perceived a greater likelihood of future infidelity in their relationships during the next year. These findings provide additional support for the idea that fragile self-esteem may have consequences for the manner in which individuals perceive their relationships.     

Antecedent Influences on Children's Extrinsic Motivation to Go Online

From a social psychological process framework, this study examines how children's self-esteem influences whether their friends motivate them to go online. Children (ages 8–14; n  = 293) completed an online questionnaire. Locus of control orientation is included as mediating the relationship between self-esteem and motivation. Hypotheses were tested using a structural equation model. Results reveal that children with healthy self-esteem perceive themselves as having control of their environments. This positively influences peer-related motivation to go online. Children with lower self-esteem see the world as controlled by others or as the result of luck. This external locus also positively influences peer-related motivation to go online. Girls maintained higher self-esteem, and boys were influenced by external factors.     

"Do as I say, not as I do": family influences on children's safety and risk behaviors

OBJECTIVE: Although there is considerable speculation that family-based socialization processes influence children's safety and risk behaviors, few studies have addressed this important issue. The present study compared the impact of parent practices and teaching about safety on children's current behaviors and their intended future behaviors when they reach adulthood. DESIGN AND MEASURES: Children 7 to 12 years of age were interviewed and asked to report on their parents' practices and teachings (discussions, expectations for children's behavior) regarding five common safety behaviors. As well, the children reported on their own current practices and how they intended to behave when an adult. When appropriate, they provided explanations about why their parents engage in fewer safety behaviors than they required of their children. RESULTS: Children's current behavior was best predicted by parental teaching, however, how children planned to behave when they were adults was best predicted by parents' practices. Children attributed less frequent safety behaviors by their parents than themselves to general attributes of adults and their parent having special skills that made the safety practices less necessary than was true for children. CONCLUSION: These results highlight family influences on children's adoption of safety and risk practices and support the notion of intergenerational transmission of risk behaviors.     

Seeking urgent pediatric treatment: factors contributing to frequency, delay, and appropriateness

The present study explored the factors that contribute to mothers' decisions to seek urgent medical attention for their children when symptoms are not of a traumatic nature. One hundred mothers seeking treatment for their children at a prepaid clinic completed a questionnaire eliciting their expectations regarding the course of their children's problems, seriousness of the problems, perceived responsibility for the symptoms, and extent to which a variety of factors contributed to their decisions to seek treatment. Demographic data and information about each child's symptoms and medical history were also obtained. Four major "reasons for seeking treatment" factors were identified: family history of the presenting complaint, worry regarding the symptoms, situational variables, and the extent of the child's illness behavior. The appropriateness of the visit, delay in seeking treatment, and frequency of mothers' use of the pediatric clinic were predicted by the nature of the presenting symptoms (particularly the presence of fever), the ages of the mother and child, and two of the reasons for seeking treatment factors (i.e., family history and child's illness behavior). The present study suggests that mothers pay more attention to presenting symptoms and to the children's behavior than to psychosocial stressors in deciding to seek urgent care.     

Flexibility and traditionality in children's gender roles

The present study examined the correlates of variability in children's gender-role preferences. A multidimensional test battery assessed the traditionality of preferences of 376 kindergarten and third grade children in five different gender role domains, and elicited information about three significant socialization agents (parents, peers, and media). Parents of the children (N = 358) were also interviewed with regard to their attitudes and sex role socialization practices. Predictions were generated from an existing theoretical developmental model. Boys exhibited stronger sex-typed preferences than did girls. Older girls were more flexible and older boys less flexible than were their younger counterparts. In accordance with prediction, two factors were obtained; the first relevant to current gender-related activities, the other to future expectations. Present-oriented gender preferences correlated best with peer perceptions, whereas future expectations (e.g. job aspirations) were best predicted by media choices. Parental data correlated with children's preferences but not as strongly as did the peer and media scales. Predictability of children's gender-role orientations was reasonably high when a number of factors were included, thus supporting the utility of a multidimensional approach.     

亲子间教育期望差异对小学生情感幸福感的影响:学业成绩和学业自我效能感的中介作用

以891名河北省衡水市某小学4~6年级学生为研究对象，采用问卷调查的方式，考察了亲子间教育期望差异对小学生情感幸福感的影响，以及学业成绩和学业自我效能感的多重中介作用。结果发现：（1）亲子间教育期望差异影响小学生情感幸福感，与感知到的父母教育期望和自我教育期望一致相比，当感知到的父母教育期望高于自我教育期望时，小学生的积极情感水平更低而消极情感水平更高；（2）学业成绩和学业自我效能感在“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”这一差异方向与积极情感间起部分中介作用，在“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”与消极情感间起完全中介作用。具体而言，“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”可直接影响积极情感，还可通过学业成绩和学业自我效能感的链式中介作用以及学业自我效能感的独立中介作用间接影响积极情感；同时，“感知到的父母教育期望 > 自我教育期望”可通过学业成绩和学业自我效能感的链式中介作用、学业自我效能感的独立中介作用以及学业成绩的独立中介作用影响消极情感。