Stability and change in personality traits from late adolescence to early adulthood: a longitudinal twin study

We conducted a longitudinal-biometric study examining stability and change in personality from ages 17 to 24 in a community sample of male and female twins. Using Tellegen's (in press) Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ), facets of Negative Emotionality (NEM) declined substantially at the mean and individual levels, whereas facets of Constraint (CON) increased over time. Furthermore, individuals in late adolescence who were lowest on NEM and highest on CON remained the most stable over time, whereas those exhibiting the inverse profile (higher NEM, lower CON) changed the most in a direction towards growth and maturity. Analyses of gender differences yielded greater mean-level increases over time for women as compared to men on facets of CON and greater mean-level increases for men than women on facets of Agentic Positive Emotionality (PEM). Biometric analyses revealed rank-order stability in personality to be largely genetic, with rank-order change mediated by both the nonshared environment (and error) as well as genes. Findings correspond with prior evidence of a normative trend toward growth and maturity in personality during emerging adulthood.     

Differential convergence of self-report and informant data for multidimensional personality questionnaire traits: implications for the construct of negative emotionality

Construct validation work on Tellegen's (1982) Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) resulted in further inferences about Negative Emotionality. Two hundred thirty-two students were rated by three knowledgeable informants, yielding a total of 928 participants. The median monotrait correlation of MPQ primary scores with summed observer ratings was .48, and all were significant, p < .01. These data show higher self-report to informant rating convergences in the Positive Emotionality (Extroversion) domain than in the Negative Emotionality (Neuroticism) domain. Furthermore, in the Negative Emotionality domain, peers, mothers, and fathers were not equivalent as classes of raters. Stress Reaction ratings showed uniformly lower levels of convergence with self-report (relative to Positive Emotionality traits) across all rater classes. For Alienation, peer and maternal ratings were comparable, but paternal ratings correlated significantly less with self-report scores than did maternal ratings. And finally, with Aggression, peer ratings correlated significantly higher with self-report than either maternal or paternal ratings. These findings, taken in the context of the literature, have implications for a hierarchical model of Negative Emotionality, support inferences about the display of cues of Negative Emotionality, and offer new cautions for rating-based assessment.     

Personality-based latent classes of posttraumatic psychopathology: personality disorders and the internalizing/externalizing model

Prior research using the Brief Form of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ-BF; Patrick, Curtin, & Tellegen, 2002) has shown evidence of 3 temperament-based subtypes--termed internalizing, externalizing, and simple PTSD--among individuals with symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD; Miller, Greif, & Smith, 2003). This study sought to replicate and extend research in this area by conducting a latent profile analysis of higher order temperament scales from the MPQ-BF using a new sample of 208 veterans with symptoms of PTSD. Results suggest that a 3-class solution reflecting internalizing, externalizing, and simple subtypes of posttraumatic psychopathology provided the best fit to the data. The externalizing subtype was characterized by features of antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders on the International Personality Disorder Examination (Loranger, 1999) as well as low levels of constraint and high levels of negative emotionality on the MPQ-BF. In contrast, individuals in the internalizing class exhibited features of schizoid and avoidant personality disorders, low levels of positive emotionality, and high levels of negative emotionality. The simple subtype was defined by low levels of comorbid personality disorder features and relatively normal personality profiles. Findings support the reliability of this typology and support the relevance of the internalizing and externalizing model to the structure of personality disorders.     

Genetic relationships between personality and eating attitudes and behaviors

Genetic and environmental factors underlying relationships between personality traits and disordered eating were examined in 256 female adolescent twin pairs (166 monozygotic, 90 dizygotic). Eating behaviors were assessed with the Total Score, Body Dissatisfaction, Weight Preoccupation, Binge Eating, and Compensatory Behavior subscales from the Minnesota Eating Disorders Inventory (M-EDI; K. L. Klump, M. McGue, & W. G. Iacono, 2000). Personality characteristics were assessed with the Negative Emotionality, Positive Emotionality, and Constraint scales from the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; A. Tellegen, 1982). Model-fitting analyses indicated that although genetic factors were more likely to contribute to MPQ and M-EDI phenotypic associations than environmental factors, shared genetic variance between the 2 phenotypes was limited. MPQ personality characteristics may represent only some of several genetic risk factors for eating pathology.     

Identifying psychopathy subtypes on the basis of personality structure

The authors used model-based cluster analysis to identify subtypes of criminal psychopaths on the basis of differences in personality structure. Participants included 96 male prisoners diagnosed as psychopathic, using the Psychopathy Checklist Revised (PCL-R; R. D. Hare, 1991). Personality was assessed using the brief form of the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ-BF; C. J. Patrick, J. J. Curtin, and A. Tellegen, 2002). The best-fitting model yielded two clusters. Emotionally stable psychopaths were characterized by low Stress Reaction and high Agency. Aggressive psychopaths were characterized by high Negative Emotionality, low Constraint, and low Communion. These results suggest that psychopaths as defined by the PCL-R includes distinct subtypes, distinguishable in terms of personality structure, that may reflect different etiologies.     

Delineating the construct network of the Personnel Reaction Blank: associations with externalizing tendencies and normal personality

Integrity testing has long been utilized in personnel selection to screen for tendencies toward counterproductive workplace behaviors. The construct of externalizing from the psychopathology literature represents a coherent spectrum marked by disinhibitory traits and behaviors. The present study drew on a sample of male and female undergraduates to examine the construct network of the Personnel Reaction Blank (PRB; H. G. Gough, R. D. Arvey, & P. Bradley, 2004), a measure of integrity, in relation to externalizing as well as normal-range personality constructs assessed by the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; A. Tellegen & N. G. Waller, 2008). Results revealed moderate to strong associations between several PRB scales and externalizing, which were largely accounted for by MPQ traits subsumed by Negative Emotionality and Constraint. After accounting for MPQ traits in the prediction of externalizing, a modest predictive increment was achieved when adding the PRB scales, particularly biographical indicators from the Prosocial Background subscale. The findings highlight externalizing as a focal criterion for scale development in the integrity testing literature and help delineate the construct network of the PRB within the domains of personality and psychopathology.     

Continuity and change in personality traits from adolescence to midlife: a 25-year longitudinal study comparing representative and adjudicated men

In the first study, a hierarchical structure of personality traits was identified using data from a longitudinal study tracing two samples of men from adolescence to midlife (i.e., a representative sample of the general population and a sample of individuals adjudicated during their adolescence). The second study examined structural, rank-order, and mean-level continuity. Partial structural continuity was demonstrated through confirmatory factor analysis. Regarding rank-order continuity, the correlations were stronger as age increased, particularly for the adjudicated men. For mean-level continuity, the adjudicated men displayed higher scores from adolescence to midlife for nearly every personality trait related to Disinhibition and Negative Emotionality. Significant decreases were observed in these traits for both samples, supporting the hypothesis of a normative psychological maturation. Although both samples showed this maturation, the adjudicated men displayed a lower rate of change during adolescence and early adulthood. The two samples did not differ in Extraversion and this trait remained more stable, particularly for adjudicated men.     

Differential association of traits of fear and anxiety with norepinephrine- and dark-induced pupil reactivity.

The relation between fear and anxiety remains unclear, though psychometric data strongly suggest they are independent emotional systems. Because central norepinephrine (NE) projection systems are at the core of models of both fear and anxiety, the present experiment explored whether this independence extends to NE functioning. Two different aspects of NE functioning were assessed in a healthy young adult sample (N = 18): pupillary reactivity to (a) a specific NE alpha-1 agonist challenge to assess receptor reactivity and (b) a darkness challenge to assess contributions of central NE. Pupillary reactivity to the former was strongly and specifically related to A. Tellegen's (1982) Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ) Harm Avoidance scale (i.e., trait fear), whereas the latter was strongly and specifically related to MPQ Negative Emotionality (i.e., trait anxiety). Implications for conceptualizing fear and anxiety as emotional systems are discussed.     

Personality Trait Change Across Late Childhood to Young Adulthood: Evidence for Nonlinearity and Sex Differences in Change

We explored patterns of self‐reported personality trait change across late childhood through young adulthood in a sample assessed up to four times on the lower order facets of Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality (NEM), and Constraint (CON). Multilevel modelling analyses were used to describe both group‐ and individual‐level change trajectories across this time span. There was evidence for nonlinear age‐related change in most traits, and substantial individual differences in change for all traits. Gender differences were detected in the change trajectories for several facets of NEM and CON. Findings add to the literature on personality development by demonstrating robust nonlinear change in several traits across late childhood to young adulthood, as well as deviations from normative patterns of maturation at the earliest ages. Copyright © 2015 European Association of Personality Psychology     

Advancing the trait EI content domain: Further evidence for the distinctiveness of interpersonal facets

This investigation sought to assess the congruence of the trait emotional intelligence (EI) sampling domain, reflected in the short form of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue; Petrides & Furnham, 2006), with the theoretical content of trait EI—namely, the range of personality traits implicated in emotions. First, associations of the TEIQue factors with Emotion-Oriented Coping (EOC) and Social Coping (SC) were compared. Three of the four TEIQue factors were stronger predictors of EOC than SC; only the Emotionality factor was a stronger predictor of SC. Also, Emotionality did not add to the prediction of EOC in a simultaneous regression with the other factors. Secondly, by means of Structural Equation Modelling, the 30-item composite and a theoretically altered 16-item composite were compared as mediators between the Big Five and the emotion-laden dimension of mental health. Even though all interpersonal items (i.e., those pertaining to Sociability and Emotionality) were omitted for the altered composite, it outperformed the original composite in predicting a latent mental health composite of Stress, Anxiety, and EOC. The results highlight the distinct nature of Emotionality and Sociability facets and have implications for the refinement of the trait EI content domain.     

Disinhibitory trait profile and its relation to Cluster B personality disorder features and substance use problems

Certain personality and motivational traits may present vulnerability towards disinhibitory psychopathology (e.g. antisocial personality disorder, substance abuse). Cluster analysis was used to separately group 306 women and 274 men on impulsivity, Constraint, Negative Emotionality, behavioural activation system (BAS), and behavioural inhibition system (BIS) scores. As expected, a ‘disinhibited’ group with low Constraint, high impulsivity, weak BIS, and strong BAS emerged that showed elevated drug use problems, and histrionic and antisocial personality disorder features across gender. A ‘high affectivity’ group with high Negative Emotionality and strong BIS also showed elevated drug use problems and personality disorder features. Results suggested that two different trait profiles are associated with disinhibitory psychopathology and both may present vulnerability toward the development of such disorders. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Application of a behavioral theory of motivation to the concepts of anxiety and impulsivity

Gray's model has been employed in attempts to formulate theories concerning the processes underlying various types of psychopathology. In the most direct application of his model, the dominant mood is assumed to reflect the strength of the underlying motivational system—i.e., strong anxiety with a strong behavioral inhibition system (BIS), strong positive affect with a strong behavioral activation system (BAS). This approach would predict strong anxiety to be associated with a dominance of passive avoidance and extinction and, similarly, strong positive affect with a dominance of impulsivity and other approach behaviors.The present paper has argued that these expectations are based on an implicit assumption that equally stressful environments are encountered—an assumption that would be undermined by individual differences in the very motivational systems under consideration. Examination of the approach-avoidance conflict paradigm supported the argument that, at least in the case of anxiety, one should not expect a strong association between behavior and motivational states. In particular, a weak behavioral inhibition system or strong behavioral activation system is likely to facilitate anxiety-producing impulsive behavior, whereas a strong behavioral inhibition system or weak behavioral activation system may facilitate anxiety-reducing cautious behavior. Other factors were also thought to promote independence of affective states and behavioral traits across individuals.On this argument, trait anxiety conceptualized as resulting from a strong BIS may not be highly correlated with frequent anxiety. Stating this another way, the behavioral correlates of a dominant BIS may be relatively independent of a trait involving a dominance of anxious mood. Using Tellegen's (1985) discussion of self-report measures of mood and personality traits, it was proposed that the trait factor of Constraint may be more strongly associated with behavioral consequences of the BAS and BIS, whereas the Negative Emotionality dimension is largely unrelated to the behavioral effects of the BIS. Since Negative Emotionality corresponds to the traditional anxiety/neuroticism factor, this proposal differs from the customary assumptions about the alignment of Gray's motivational systems and personality traits. The personality trait of Positive Emotionality (cf. extraversion) may be associated with individual differences in the strength of the BAS, with both affective and behavioral components. Thus, the hypothesis of motivational-behavioral uncoupling offers an alternative to the usual intepretations of the three major dimensions seen in most personality inventories. Unfortunately, it remains unclear as to how well the three major personality traits (Positive Emotionality, Negative Emotionality, and Constraint) are aligned with the hypothesized underlying motivational dimensions, and any hypotheses must be seen as extremely tentative.Finally, the question of the validity of self-report measures was discussed briefly. Of greatest interest is the possibility that a subset of subjects are unable to accurately report their emotional states, and that methods are available for identifying these individuals. If so, the validity of these self-report measures may be significantly improved, facilitating research on anxiety and impulsivity.     

Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire profiles of veterans with traumatic combat exposure: externalizing and internalizing subtypes

This study used the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; A. Tellegen, in press) to identify personality-based subtypes of posttraumatic response. Cluster analyses of MPQs completed by combat veterans revealed subgroups that differed on measures relating to the externalization versus internalization of distress. The MPQ profile of the externalizing cluster was defined by low Constraint and Harmavoidance coupled with high Alienation and Aggression. Individuals in this cluster also had histories of delinquency and high rates of substance-related disorder. In comparison, the MPQ profile of the internalizing cluster was characterized by lower Positive Emotionality, Alienation, and Aggression and higher Constraint, and individuals in this cluster showed high rates of depressive disorder. These findings suggest that dispositions toward externalizing versus internalizing psychopathology may account for heterogeneity in the expression of posttraumatic responses, including patterns of comorbidity.     

Functional coordination of personality strategies with physical strength and attractiveness: A multi-sample investigation at the HEXACO facet-level

Previous research has supported adaptationist hypotheses pertaining to the functional coordination of personality strategies with phenotypic determinants of bargaining power, such as physical strength and attractiveness. However, prior studies have focused primarily on explaining variation in Extraversion and Emotionality/Neuroticism as broadband traits. The current study synthesizes data from three subject samples (N = 766) to test correlations of physical strength and attractiveness with the HEXACO factors and facets among young adults. Our analyses reveal specific, functionally meaningful, patterns of phenotypic coordination, and thereby help illuminate which facets drive previously documented associations at the factor-level. Among both sexes, strength was an especially important predictor of facets whose secondary loadings place them in the quadrant of factor space defined by high Extraversion (Expressiveness, Liveliness, Social Boldness) and low Emotionality (Fearfulness, Anxiety). Findings bolster the hypothesis that specific personality strategies are coordinated with phenotypic components of bargaining power, and suggest that granular measures of personality (such as facets) may provide more mechanistic and functional insight than broadband trait factors.     

Core self-evaluation moderates distinctive similarity preference in ideal partner’s personality

This research investigated the moderation effects of core self-evaluation (CSE) on singles’ ideal partner preference, concerning distinctive similarity in personality. The data were collected from singles from three countries (i.e., China, Denmark, and US), and modelled in a multilevel profile analysis. The results show that CSE moderated distinctive profile similarity preference in that people high in CSE preferred higher distinctive profile similarity with their ideal partner. In addition, CSE moderated distinctive trait similarity preference in Emotionality, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness in that people high in CSE preferred their ideal partner to share higher distinctive similarity on these four traits. Implications and limitations of the research and findings are also discussed.     

Dynamic of Change in Pathological Personality Trait Dimensions: A Latent Change Analysis Among at-Risk Women

This study explores longitudinally a four-factor structure of pathological personality trait dimensions (PPTDs) to examine both its structural stability and intra-individual changes among PPTDs over time. Personality Disorder (PD) scales of the Millon Clinical Multiaxial Inventory-III were administered to 361 low-income women with various psychiatric conditions (drug dependence, depression), who were followed in a two-wave study over 5-years. Cross-sectional and longitudinal factor analyses outlined a robust factorial structure of PPTDs, extrinsically invariant over time, representing Negative Emotionality, Introversion, Antagonism and Impulsivity. Despite moderate rank-order stability in the PPTDs, results also indicated substantial intra-individual variability in the degree and direction of change, consistent with trajectories of change in participants’ clinical diagnoses. Results are discussed in light of current debates on the structure and dynamic of pathological personality.     

Age-independent effects of pubertal status on behavioral constraint in healthy adolescents

Studies have examined age-related changes in personality traits from adolescence through young adulthood, finding that aspects of negative emotionality decrease while conscientiousness increases over time. Varied mechanisms may underlie these transitions, including puberty-driven hormonal changes. Here, healthy adolescents completed the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire-Brief Form and self-report measures of pubertal status at baseline and after two years. Independent of age, pubertal status impacted primary trait scales of the MPQ-BF Constraint factor in a sex-specific manner. Females decreased in Constraint, and particularly Control, while males increased in Constraint, and particularly Harm Avoidance, with advancing puberty. Longitudinal analyses validated these findings for Control. Findings are discussed relative to males’ versus females’ achievement of optimal levels of behavioral control in adolescence.     

The assessment of behavioural activation—the relationship between positive emotionality and the behavioural activation system

Much personality research suggests that the variance in personality can be accounted for by a few dimensions, often hypothesized to be connected to neurological circuits. Gray's ( 1982 ) behavioural activation system (BAS) and behavioural inhibition system (BIS) in particular propose to explain for a variety of behaviour. This investigation sought to determine whether Positive Emotionality is an appropriate measure of the BAS, and how Tellegen's ( 1985 ) constructs are related to BAS activity. Measures of BAS and Positive Emotionality were administered to undergraduates. Confirmatory factor analyses revealed that, while Positive Emotionality can be used as an indicator of BAS activity, it is better conceived of as a distinct, correlated construct. In addition, not all components of Positive Emotionality were related to BAS activity, and BAS was further related to components of Negative Emotionality and Constraint. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Role of Temperament and Personality in Problem Behaviors of Children with ADHD

This study describes temperament, personality, and problem behaviors in children with Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) aged 6 to 14 years. It targets differences between an ADHD sample (N = 54; 43 boys) and a large community sample (N = 465; 393 boys) in means and variances, psychometric properties, and covariation between traits and internalizing and externalizing problems. Parents rated their children on Buss and Plomin’s and Rothbart’s temperament models, a child-oriented five-factor personality model and also on problem behavior. Relative to the comparison group, children with ADHD presented with a distinct trait profile exhibiting lower means on Effortful Control, Conscientiousness, Benevolence and Emotional Stability, higher means on Emotionality, Activity, and Negative Affect, but similar levels of Surgency, Shyness, and Extraversion. Striking similarities in variances, reliabilities and, in particular, of the covariation between trait and maladjustment variables corroborate the spectrum hypothesis and suggest that comparable processes regulate problem behavior in children with and without ADHD.