The Role of Hardiness and Grit in Predicting Performance and Retention of USMA Cadets

We examined the relative effectiveness of hardiness and grit as predictors of performance and retention among first year cadets at the USMA. Based on past research and theory, we expected that both hardiness and grit would predict unique variance in performance and retention even after controlling for past performance as measured by the Whole Candidate Score. Results of regression analyses revealed that hardiness and grit predicted unique variance in first year retention, but only hardiness predicted first year performance at USMA. These findings suggest that hardiness assessment and training may prove valuable in enhancing performance and retention within military training environments.     

Hardiness training facilitates performance in college

In 25 years of research and practice, hardiness has emerged as a pattern of attitudes and skills that is a pathway to resilience under stressful circumstances. As such, it is important to determine whether hardiness can be trained, and if such training improves performance and health. The few relevant studies available thus far have suggested this training effectiveness among working adults and students. Furthering this theme, the present study involves a large sample of undergraduate students, comparing those who experienced hardiness training as a regular credit course, with those who went through other courses taught by the same teachers. At the beginning of the courses, these two groups did not differ in demographics, hardiness levels, or grade-point-average (GPA). At the end of the courses, the Hardiness Training Group showed higher levels of hardiness, and GPA than did the Comparison Group. This improvement in GPA for the Hardiness Training Group persisted over the following 2-year period, even controlling for GPA and hardiness level prior to the training, and the grade received in the training. These results suggest the importance of hardiness training in facilitating a major indicator of excellent performance in college life.     

Coping with recruiter stress: Hardiness,performance and well-being in US Army recruiters

ABSTRACT

Recruiting for military service can be a highly stressful job, but it is one that is essential for success in the all-volunteer force. Military recruiters face a number of job stressors, including pressure to meet monthly production quotas, long work hours and time away from family. They also work in relative isolation, with limited work social support networks. These factors make recruiters vulnerable to burnout and early attrition. The present study examines psychological hardiness and active, problem focused coping as potential stress resilience resources in US Army recruiters. In a stratified random sample of N = 817 recruiters, hardiness was found to predict supervisor-rated performance and psychological well-being. Hardiness also interacted with problem focused coping to predict psychological well-being, suggesting a mediating role for coping. These results can be applied to help improve policy for selecting and training military recruiters.     

The Protective Value of Hardiness on Military Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms

This study examined the protective effects of hardiness (dispositional resilience) on self-reported posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a sample of postdeployed service members. Hardiness was negatively related to PTSD symptoms. Time in the military, number of deployments, and total time spent on deployment were all positively related to PTSD symptoms. Hardiness moderated the effects of time in the military on PTSD symptoms, such that time in the military had no effect on those who were high in hardiness. Hardiness did not moderate the effects of either deployment measure. Suggestions to modify current military resilience training programs to most effectively enhance the benefits of hardiness are discussed.     

On the Stability of Psychological Hardiness: A Three-Year Longitudinal Study

More than 30 years of research has established psychological hardiness as an important individual resiliency resource. One important question still remaining is whether psychological hardiness can be trained. The present study explored this question longitudinally within the context of a 3-year military academy training program. Cadets from 3 different Norwegian military academies (N = 293) completed hardiness questionnaires during the first week of their training, and then again at the end of each year, resulting in a total of 4 waves of data. Using hierarchical linear modeling, no statistically significant effect of time on hardiness scores was found. The nonsignificant growth parameter was examined further using Bayesian statistics as an indicator of the relative evidence for the null hypothesis of no change over time versus the alternative hypothesis of change. The resulting Bayes factor provided substantial support in our data for the null hypothesis of no hardiness development during the 3-year officer training programs.     

Psychological Hardiness Predicts Adaptability in Military Leaders: A prospective study

To perform effectively in complex mission environments, security personnel and leaders must be flexible and adaptable in responding to rapidly changing conditions. Psychological hardiness marks resilient people who maintain their health and performance despite stressful situations. The present study evaluates psychological hardiness at entry to West Point military academy as a predictor of leader performance and adaptability over time. Predictors also included Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT) scores, and a composite indicator of leader potential (Whole Candidate Score) taken from admissions records. Using the Pulakos adaptability taxonomy as a guide, adaptability performance items were taken from a survey of graduates given 3 years after graduation. Also, military leadership grades as West Point seniors provided an index of traditional military performance. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that Whole Candidate Scores predict military leader performance at West Point, but not leader adaptability after graduation. However, hardiness predicts leader performance at West Point, and also leader adaptability (self‐ and supervisor ratings) after graduation. SAT scores and the challenge facet of hardiness are negative predictors of leader performance at West Point. Results indicate that while the traditional measures Whole Candidate Score predicts leader performance in the stable, highly regulated environment of West Point, it does not predict leader adaptability and performance in the uncertain environment of real‐world operations. In contrast, psychological hardiness (commitment and control facets) measured as academy freshmen predicts leader adaptability in officers measured 7 years later. Psychological hardiness appears to be a promising factor in promoting the development of adaptability.     

Effects of Hardiness and Years of Military Service on Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms in U.S. Army Medics

We examined the effects of hardiness on symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTS) in postdeployed U.S. Army medics (N = 322). Medics endure a high level of work-related stress on and off the battlefield. Hardiness correlated negatively with reports of PTS symptoms and moderated the cumulative effects of years of military service on PTS symptoms. After controlling for socially desirable responding, PTS symptoms increased with years of military service for those with low levels of hardiness and decreased with years of military service for those with very high levels of hardiness. The military’s current resiliency training programs would likely benefit from incorporating hardiness measures and principles into its curriculum.     

Longitudinal investigation of reciprocal relationship between stress reactions and hardiness

Although many studies have examined hardiness as a protective factor against stress reactions, to the authors' knowledge no studies have yet examined the impact of stress reactions on hardiness. However, there is theoretical support for this notion. In this longitudinal study of 1,571 Marine recruits who participated in a highly stressful training program, the authors applied regression-based cross-lagged analyses to examine associations between stress reactions and hardiness over time for both men and women, and they investigated social support as a moderator of these relationships. Men who were hardier at Time 1 (T1) reported lower stress reactions at Time 2 (T2), and men who experienced more stress reactions at T1 were less hardy at T2. Although the negative impact of stress reactions on hardiness was strongest when social support was low for both genders, stress reactions predicted enhanced hardiness when social support was high for women only.     

Suicide Attempts and Suicide among Marines: A Decade of Follow‐up

Suicidal behavior among military personnel is of paramount public health importance because of the increased risk of death from suicide in this population. Pre‐ and post‐Marine recruit training risk factors for suicide attempts among current and former Marines were examined in 10 years following recruit training. The characteristics of the subsample of current and former Marines who died by suicide during this time are also described. Stressful and traumatic life events (e.g., childhood physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, sexual harassment during recruit training) and pre‐recruit training suicide attempts emerged as having strong associations with post‐recruit training attempts. Half of those who died by suicide in the 10 years following recruit training endorsed at least one significant life stressor prior to joining the Marines. This study highlights the importance of screening for stressful and potentially traumatic experiences occurring both before and during military service as part of a comprehensive suicide risk assessment in military samples.     

Life events, fitness, hardiness, and health: a simultaneous analysis of proposed stress-resistance effects

The effects of exercise participation, self-perceived fitness level, and dispositional hardiness for promoting stress resistance were examined in a sample of 373 college students. Self-report measures of stressful life experience and recent physical illness were positively correlated, and fitness and hardiness were negatively correlated with illness as expected. Multiple regression analyses indicated that neither fitness nor hardiness provided a stress-moderator effect because neither was found to significantly interact with stress in the prediction of illness scores. Structural equation analyses suggested that hardiness may affect health indirectly by first influencing either the occurrence or subjective interpretation of stressful life events. No direct effect on health was found for exercise participation, although exercise may reduce illness indirectly by improving fitness. Implications for the multivariate modeling of proposed stress-resistance-enhancing effects are discussed.     

Hardiness: The courage to grow from stresses

The recent emphasis on positive psychology is welcome, and has spurred much relevant research. But, there are still many unresolved conceptual and research issues, as more variables are being proposed as relevant. As part of this process, the present paper proposes hardiness as an addition to positive psychology. Hardiness is a combination of attitudes that provides the courage and motivation to do the hard, strategic work of turning stressful circumstances from potential disasters into growth opportunities. In this regard, the inherently stressful nature of living is discussed. Also clarified are the particular aspects of excellence in performance and health to which hardiness is relevant. The paper concludes with a call for issue-resolving research through which orientations and actions proposed as part of positive psychology can be compared in their contributions to performance and health. Two studies along these lines have found hardiness more powerful than optimism and religiousness in coping with stresses.     

Psychological and Physical Characteristics of U.S. Marine Recruits

This study examined psychological and physical health factors in a cohort of U.S. Marine recruits with the goal of developing a comprehensive understanding of attributes recruits bring to training. 1,350 male recruits completed a multimeasure survey during the first week of training. A 2-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to explore the relationship of hardiness dimensions on several psychological and physical factors. Compared with other military samples, this cohort reported similar levels on hardiness control and rigidity subscales. Recruits who reported higher scores on a measure of positive hardiness also reported higher scores on measures of grit, grit ambition, sensation seeking, training expectations, positive ways of coping, physical and mental health, fitness scores, and lower scores on a measure of depression. This study provides a more complete understanding of the complex array of attributes of Marine recruits and forms a foundation for predictive models of injury risk and/or attrition.     

Organisation climate mediation of the relationship between hardiness,self-efficacy,and job satisfaction among military followers

This study examined influences of organisational climate on hardiness, self-efficacy, and job satisfaction in a military setting. Data were collected from 120 South African National Defence Force (SANDF) military personnel (female = 36%; officers = 90%; age range = 24–64 years). The defence force members completed a military hardiness scale, general self-efficacy scale, workplace climate questionnaire, and the generic job satisfaction scale. Regression analyses were computed to predict job satisfaction from hardiness and self-efficacy. This was followed by moderated multiple regression analysis to examine the influence of organisational climate on the relationship between job satisfaction from hardiness and self-efficacy. The results suggest high levels of hardiness (commitment) and organisational climate to predict 71% of the variance in job satisfaction. Personal hardiness (commitment) and organisational climate strongly influence job satisfaction among military followers.     

Hardiness and health: a critique and alternative approach

Recent research has suggested that individual differences in the personality variable of hardiness are related to health and illness. Despite some success at predicting health outcomes, there are several theoretical and empirical problems that must be addressed before research on this topic can proceed. Most critical are (a) how hardiness is to be measured; (b) whether hardiness should be treated as a unitary phenomenon or as three separate phenomena associated with commitment, control, and challenge; and (c) whether hardiness has direct effects on health or indirect effects by virtue of buffering the impact of stressful life events. After reviewing the literature and presenting our own study of the psychometric properties of the Hardiness Scale and its subcomponents, we draw the following conclusions: (a) Hardiness is not a unitary phenomenon, but should be treated as involving three separate phenomena; (b) of the three subcomponents of hardiness, only commitment and control have adequate psychometric properties and are systematically related to health outcomes; (c) lack of control and lack of commitment have direct effects on health because they are psychologically stressful; and (d) if there are buffering effects of commitment and control, they are in addition to these direct effects and are situation specific. Such a systematic consideration of the problems and prospects of the hardiness literature should facilitate research on this important topic.     

Relationships Between Cortisol,Optimism, and Perseverance Measured in Two Military Settings

Optimism and perseverance are 2 important assets for soldiers to be able to perform competently in high-risk environments and to complete complex and stressful tasks. Traditionally, optimism is measured using questionnaires and most frequently in a retrospective manner, for example, after a mission is completed. As such, ability to persevere in challenging environments is generally taken into account when it is too late, that is, when the soldier is showing severe signs of deficiency or failing to persevere. Therefore, there is a need for more objective measurements with which to predict perseverance. We conducted and present 2 studies in which the hormone cortisol seems to play a key role, relating with optimism, and possibly predicting perseverance. In the first study, we measured cortisol levels during a computer-simulated military training mission. A significant correlation between cortisol levels and optimism measured by the revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R) Scale was found. In the second study, we followed 29 recruits through a demanding military training course required for joining the Dutch Air Mobile Brigade. The recruits who persevered and completed the course had a higher cortisol response to a stressful training event compared with those who leave the course. A regression model showed that a combination of the soldiers’ optimism and cortisol response best predicted perseverance. This study shows that a combination of attitudinal instruments and a biomarker has potential for predicting military training course attrition.     

The effect of hardiness on PTSD symptoms: A prospective mediational approach

Psychological hardiness has been associated with lower PTSD in military personnel, but the processes of action remain unclear. This study uses a prospective design to examine whether hardiness has an indirect effect on PTSD symptoms through avoidance coping. Our sample included 163 Norwegian military personnel who served in international operations between 2009 and 2010. Regression analyses were performed to estimate the coefficients in a simple mediation model, with baseline PTSD symptoms, combat exposure, and deprivation of basic needs entered as control variables. The results showed that the effect of hardiness on PTSD symptoms worked through reducing the use of avoidance coping. It was concluded that an avoidant-focused coping style acts as a vulnerability factor for PTSD symptoms, whereas hardiness acts as a resilience factor against symptoms development.     

The personality construct of hardiness, III: Relationships with repression, innovativeness, authoritarianism, and performance

Previous research has established hardiness as a dispositional factor in preserving and enhancing performance and health despite stressful circumstances. The present four studies continue this construct-validational process by (a) introducing a shortened version of the hardiness measure and (b) testing hypotheses concerning the relationship between hardiness and repressive coping, right-wing authoritarianism, innovative behavior, and billable hours (a measure of consulting effectiveness). Results of these studies suggest the adequate reliability and validity of the Personal Views Survey III-R, which is the shortened, 18-item measure of hardiness. Further, results support the hypothesis that the relationship of hardiness is negative with repressive coping and right-wing authoritarianism and positive with innovative behavior and billable hours. Hardiness also appears unrelated to socially desirable responding.     

Appraisal of life change, depression, and illness in hardy and nonhardy women

A survey study of adult women was conducted to examine whether psychological hardiness buffers people against stressful life change through the appraisal and interpretation of life experiences. Hardy and nonhardy participants reported life events for the previous year, physical illness for the previous 6 months, and current levels of depression and rated each reported event in terms of its desirability. Results indicate that, although hardiness is not associated with the likelihood of reporting any specific life event, nonhardy subjects appraise a significantly higher proportion of their life experiences as undesirable than do hardy subjects and report that each negative event requires greater adjustment. Discussion focuses on nonhardiness as a correlate of the trait of negative affectivity rather than hardiness as a reflection of special resiliency to stress.     

Predicting Transformational Leadership in Naval Cadets: Effects of Personality Hardiness and Training

The present study investigated whether personality hardiness predicts peer ratings of leadership style in Navy officer cadets. Cadets ( n  = 71) completed the Dispositional Resiliency (hardiness) Scale, and later rated their peers using the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (full range of leadership model). Results show the hardy–commitment facet predicted peer ratings of all leadership styles covered in the model, both before and after and intensive military exercise. The challenge facet was a positive predictor of transformational and transactional leadership and was negatively related to passive-avoidant leadership. Transformational leadership predicted leader performance, as indexed by military development grades; and a partial mediation effect was found for hardiness on the relation between transformational leadership and leader performance.     

Psychological Hardiness and Adjustment to Life Events in Adulthood

Data were collected from 88 persons who had lost their jobs and 227 persons whose youngest child had left home to explore the impact of psychological hardiness on personal distress, adjustment, and coping strategies. Analyses controlling for numerous sociodemographic factors as well as NEO Neuroticism and Extroversion suggested that the interaction between overall hardiness and the experience of differential life events influenced the use of planful problem solving and positive reappraisal as coping mechanisms, as well as influencing levels of positive affect. In addition, a main effect for overall hardiness on several coping strategies, positive affect, and life satisfaction was obtained. Findings also suggested that job loss was a more stressful experience for adults in this study than was the empty nest. These data indicate that hardiness may mediate responses to life events that differ in terms of their predictability and anticipatory nature.