EFFECTS OF REINFORCER QUALITY ON BEHAVIORAL MOMENTUM: COORDINATED APPLIED AND BASIC RESEARCH

The high-probability (high-p) instructional sequence has been an effective treatment for noncompliance. However, treatment failures have also been reported. We hypothesized that the efficacy of the high-p treatment may be improved by using higher quality reinforcers for compliance to high-p instructions. The resistance of compliance to change was tested by varying reinforcer quality in two applied studies and a basic laboratory experiment. Experiment 1 tested the hypothesis that an increase in reinforcer quality for high-p compliance will increase the effectiveness of the high-p treatment when it fails to increase compliance. Experiment 2 assessed the effects of reinforcer quality on resistance of compliance to change by presenting successive low-p requests following the high-p treatment. A basic laboratory study (Experiment 3) was conducted to further isolate the relation between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum. Two different liquid reinforcers (sucrose and citric acid solutions) were presented in a two-component multiple variable-interval variable-interval schedule followed by a single extinction test session. Results of all three experiments showed a generally consistent relationship between reinforcer quality and behavioral momentum.     

The momentum of compliance

Compliance with demanding requests that are normally ineffective may be increased by presenting a series of easy or high-probability (high-p) requests before the more demanding requests. Mace and his colleagues have discussed the effectiveness of the high-p procedure in relation to behavioral momentum—the tendency for behavior, once initiated and reinforced, to persist in the face of a challenge. The high-p procedure differs in several ways from that employed in laboratory research on momentum, and the methods and findings of basic research may not be relevant to applied work on compliance. This article reviews some laboratory procedures used in research on behavioral momentum, summarizes the major findings of that research, and discusses its relevance to the high-p procedure and its outcomes. Increased compliance with demanding requests following the high-p procedure can be understood in relation to the procedures and findings of basic research, but some questions arise in the process of translating research into application via the metaphor of momentum. These questions suggest some new directions for both experimental and applied behavior analysis.     

VARIANT AND INVARIANT HIGH-PROBABILITY REQUESTS: INCREASING APPROPRIATE BEHAVIORS IN CHILDREN WITH EMOTIONAL-BEHAVIORAL DISORDERS

This study examined the effects of variant versus invariant high-probability (high-p) request sequences on the performance of requests to initiate a social bid by young children with emotional-behavioral disorders. In the initial phases of the investigation, a multiple baseline design showed that the delivery of invariant sequences (i.e., high-p requests delivered in the same sequence) produced initial increases in compliance to requests to initiate a social bid to a peer. However, increases were not maintained across the invariant condition. The delivery of variant high-p sequences produced increases in compliance to requests to initiate social bids that were maintained across the variant condition. In a follow-up condition, the number of requests within the pool of the variant and invariant high-p requests were controlled. Results of the follow-up condition replicated those found in the initial condition. Implications for applied use and future research are discussed.     

USING HIGH-PROBABILITY INSTRUCTION SEQUENCES WITH FADING TO INCREASE STUDENT COMPLIANCE DURING TRANSITIONS

Making efficient transitions from one instructional activity to another has been shown to increase academic learning time and therefore student achievement. Because compliance with teacher instructions is a prerequisite for efficient transitions, we sought to determine if high-probability (high-p) instruction sequences issued by a classroom teacher would increase student compliance and decrease latency to comply during transitions. Three children in a regular second-grade classroom participated. Each day at the beginning of morning calendar time, the teacher issued five instructions to the class as a group while compliance data were recorded for the 3 target students. Following baseline, a multielement design was used to examine the effects of the high-p instruction sequence. We then systematically faded the number of instructions included in the high-p sequence as a means of transferring stimulus control to low-probability instructions. The procedure was effective for 2 of the 3 participants, and the results were maintained at 2-and 3-week follow-up. The implications of these findings for group applications of the high-p instruction sequence in regular education classrooms are discussed.     

MOMENTUM AND EXTINCTION EFFECTS ON SELF-INJURIOUS ESCAPE BEHAVIOR AND NONCOMPLIANCE

Previous research on applications of behavioral momentum has indicated that a high-probability (high-p) instructional sequence, in which a series of instructions for which there is a high probability of compliance is presented immediately before an instruction for which there is a low probability of compliance, is an effective method for increasing compliance. It is not dear, however, whether the procedure is effective when individuals actively attempt to escape from the instructional situation. In this study, we examined the effects of the high-p sequence, when implemented first alone and then later with an extinction component, as treatment for the self-injurious escape behavior of 2 individuals. Results showed that when the instructional sequence was implemented without extinction, rates of self-injury increased and percentage of compliance decreased. In addition, the percentage of trials occasioning escape behavior increased for both high- and low-probability instructions. When an extinction component was added to the high-p sequence, rates of self-injury and the percentage of trials containing self-injury decreased, and compliance increased. These findings suggest that extinction may be an important component of treatment when escape behavior such as self-injury accompanies noncompliance in instructional contexts and competes with compliant behavior.     

Using High-Probability Request Sequences to Increase Journal Writing

Written expression is a key aspect of academic success. Programs to enhance writing skills often rely on a feedback loop that consists of student production (i.e., get something on paper) and teacher feedback. Unfortunately, some students fail to produce enough written product so that the teacher can give constructive feedback. The purpose of this study was to examine two methods to increase the written word production of four students with difficulties in written expression. In the verbal prompt condition, students were given verbal prompts by their teacher to resume writing in their journals after the student stopped writing for approximately one min. In the high-p request condition, the teacher asked students to write a series of three words that typically occasioned compliance prior to asking the student to resume journal writing. Both interventions were assessed within the context of verbal praise and no verbal praise. Results suggested that both interventions increased the number of words written, particularly in the verbal praise condition. However, the high-p request sequence was more efficient and produced writing behavior that was more persistent across sessions. Results are discussed within the context of the theory of behavioral momentum.     

Behavioral momentum and stimulus fading in the acquisition and maintenance of child compliance in the home

The provision of a series of requests to which compliance is highly likely (high-probability requests) immediately antecedent to low-probability requests has been used to establish behavioral momentum of compliance. We evaluated a fading procedure for maintaining high levels of compliance obtained with high-probability requests. Fading involved a systematic reduction in the number of high-probability requests and an increase in the latency between the high- and low-probability requests. High levels of compliance for both "do" and "don't" requests were maintained for 16 weeks in a 5-year-old boy with developmental disabilities after the high-probability request sequence was faded. Similar maintenance was obtained for "do" requests in a 15-year-old girl with developmental disabilities. For this subject, however, the high-probability request sequence was ineffective with "don't" requests. When "don't" requests were phrased as "do" requests, the high-probability request sequence produced high levels of compliance to the low-probability request. High levels of compliance to these "do" requests were maintained for 16 weeks after the high-probability request sequence was faded.     

Explicit Instruction With or Without High-<Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis> Sequences: Which is More Effective to Teach Multiplication Facts?

Basic fact acquisition is an important component for developing higher-order math skills. However, getting students with a history of academic noncompliance to engage in activities related to skills acquisition can be difficult. Prior research demonstrates that engagement increases when nonpreferred activities are preceded by a series of brief activities with a high probability of completion. This technique, called high-p task/request sequences, was not fully explored within the context of skill acquisition. The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of adding high-p sequences to explicit instruction on the math fact acquisition of three elementary-age students in a learning support classroom. Results showed no differences in fact acquisition between explicit instruction and explicit instruction with an added high-p component. However, the high-p sessions took nearly twice as long to complete when compared to explicit instruction alone. Implications for instructional efficiency and limitations of the high-p procedures for acquisition tasks are discussed.     

Lexical competition is enhanced in the left hemisphere: evidence from different types of orthographic neighbors

Two divided visual field lexical decision experiments were conducted to examine the role of the cerebral hemispheres in orthographic neighborhood effects. In Experiment 1, we employed two types of words: words with many substitution neighbors (high-N) and words with few substitution neighbors (low-N). Results showed a facilitative effect of N in the left visual field (i.e., right hemisphere) and an inhibitory effect of N in the right visual field (left hemisphere). In Experiment 2, we examined whether the inhibitory effect of the higher frequency neighbors increases in the left hemisphere as compared to the right hemisphere. To go beyond the usual N-metrics, we selected words with (or without) higher frequency neighbors (addition, deletion, or transposition neighbors). Results showed that the inhibitory effect of neighborhood frequency is enhanced in the right visual field. We examine the implications of these findings for the orthographic coding schemes employed by the models of visual word recognition.     

Effects of response independent delivery of preferred items and the high‐probability instructional sequence on compliance

The use of the high‐probability (high‐p) instructional sequence to increase compliance, which includes issuing a series of instructions with which a participant is likely to comply immediately before issuing a low‐probability instruction, has received mixed support in the literature. Previous research has suggested that the delivery of response independent reinforcement may be as effective to increase compliance, at least for some types of instructions. In this study, we examined the effects of response independent reinforcement and the high‐p sequence on compliance with two types of instructions with two young children. Results show that neither procedure was effective for increasing compliance for either type of instruction; however, contingent access to a high preference item increased compliance. Results are discussed in terms of the conditions under which response independent delivery of high‐preference items and the high‐p instructional sequence might be effective to increase compliance.     

Effects of three-step prompting on compliance with caregiver requests

Three-step prompting is a procedure commonly used in behavioral assessments and interventions; however, little research has evaluated the effects of this procedure on increasing children's compliance with caregiver requests. In this study, caregivers of children who demonstrated low levels of compliance were trained to use three-step prompting when presenting task requests to their children. Results indicated that training caregivers to implement this procedure decreased the frequency of caregiver-delivered prompts and increased compliance by the children.     

The effect of legitimacy of a request and compliance versus noncompliance on the evaluation of others1

Eighty male undergraduates read a supposedly true interaction between two workers in a business firm, in which A made a request of B The status of B relative to A, the legitimacy of the request, and compliance versus noncompliance by B were varied It was found (a) that compliers to legitimate requests and noncompliers to illegitimate requests were liked better than noncompliers to legitimate requests or compliers to illegitimate requests, (b) that noncompliers were seen as more internally controlled than were compliers, and (c) that individuals may respond to an atypical situation by imposing upon it a consistent internal structure Status had little effect The data were regarded as clarifying a previous experiment by Ring (1964) as well as suggesting further research     

Effects of High-Probability Request Sequences on Preschoolers' Compliance and Disruptive Behavior

A high-probability request sequence was implemented with three preschool children with developmental delays within their classroom during typical activities. A multiple baseline design across subjects was used to evaluate the effects of the high-probability request sequence on compliant responding to low-probability requests and the occurrence of disruptive behavior. Results of the study indicate that the use of the high-probability request sequence was effective in increasing compliant responding to low-probability requests delivered by two different trainers for all children. No increases in disruptive behavior were noted as a result of using the high-probability request sequence. When the high-probability request sequence was withdrawn, compliant responding to low-probability requests was maintained for all children across time and in different settings.     

Acquiring Assistance from Others The Effect of Indirect Requests and Relational Intimacy on Verbal Compliance

This research examines the effectiveness of indirect requests in attaining assistance from intimate and nonintimate others. Prior research indicates that people are inclined to make requests using indirect forms. However, help-seeking research has neglected to consider request forms, and research on indirect requests has focused mainly on issues of interpretation. The results of this study indicate that the directness of a request increases request force and also interacts with relational intimacy to influence verbal compliance. Directness is more effective at eliciting verbal compliance at higher levels of intimacy. The experimental findings highlight issues concerning the definition of indirectness and also the utility of merging interpretation and compliance in language research.     

COMPLIANCE TRAINING AND BEHAVIORAL COVARIATION IN THE TREATMENT OF MULTIPLE BEHAVIOR PROBLEMS

The present study investigated the use of a compliance-training procedure and its effect on untreated deviant child behaviors. Three children, each generally noncompliant to adult requests and with several additional problems, such as crying, aggression, and self-injurious behavior, were trained in the compliance procedure under a multiple-baséline design across therapists. Compliance was defined as the correct response to prespecified requests. Other classes of deviant child behavior were measured continuously throughout the study but not directly reinforced. The results of the study showed that (a) increases in compliance to requests were directly related to the contingencies employed; (b) decreases in untreated deviant behaviors occurred when compliance increased, even though no direct contingencies had been placed on these behaviors; and (c) the relationship between untreated deviant behaviors and compliance appeared to be maintained by a different set of events in each of the three children. The results are discussed in terms of behavioral covariation and generalization.     

Self-regulation evaluation of therapeutic yoga and walking for patients with irritable bowel syndrome: a pilot study

With limited efficacy of medications for symptom relief, non-medication treatments may play an important role in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), the most common functional gastrointestinal (GI) disorder. This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of two self-regulation strategies for symptom relief and mood management in IBS patients. Thirty-five adult participants meeting ROME III criteria for IBS were enrolled, 27 of the 35 participants (77%) completed treatment and pre- and post-treatment visits (89% women, 11% men; M (SD) age = 36 (13)), and 20 of the 27 (74%) completed a 6-month follow-up. Participants were randomly assigned to 16 biweekly group sessions of Iyengar yoga or a walking program. Results indicated a significant group by time interaction on negative affect with the walking treatment showing improvement from pre- to post-treatment when compared to yoga (p < .05). There was no significant group by time effect on IBS severity. Exploratory analyses of secondary outcomes examined change separately for each treatment condition. From pre- to post-treatment, yoga showed significant decreases in IBS severity measures (p < .05), visceral sensitivity (p < .05), and severity of somatic symptoms (p < .05). Walking showed significant decreases in overall GI symptoms (p < .05), negative affect (p < .05), and state anxiety (p < .05). At 6-month follow-up, overall GI symptoms for walking continued to significantly decline, while for yoga, GI symptoms rebounded toward baseline levels (p < .05). When asked about self-regulated home practice at 6 months, significantly more participants in walking than in yoga practiced at least weekly (p < .05). In sum, results suggest that yoga and walking as movement-based self-regulatory behavioral treatments have some differential effects but are both beneficial for IBS patients, though maintenance of a self-regulated walking program may be more feasible and therefore more effective long term.     

ANALYSIS OF A HIGH-PROBABILITY INSTRUCTIONAL SEQUENCE AND TIME-OUT IN THE TREATMENT OF CHILD NONCOMPLIANCE

This study evaluated the effectiveness of high-probability requests and time-out as treatments for noncompliance that appeared to be maintained by contingent attention in 2 developmental normal children. The introduction of high-probability requests increased compliance for 1 child but not the other. Time-out was effective with both children, and improvements in compliance were maintained at an 8-week follow-up.     

Expanding the utility of behavioral momentum for youth with developmental disabilities

Non‐compliance with requests in educational or therapeutic settings interferes with teaching and learning. Recent studies indicate that the probability of compliance can be increased when short sequences of requests with a high probability of compliance are followed by a request less likely to be followed by compliance. The high probability command sequence (HPCS) consists of requests that produce compliance rates of 80% or more. For some individuals with severe disabilities it is difficult to find sufficient number of requests that result in 80% compliance. This study assessed the effects of two levels of high probability request sequences on compliance with subsequent low probability requests. The three participants (ages 7, 11, and 20) met the diagnostic criteria for autism and/or severe to profound mental retardation. Results showed that both high (>80% compliance) and medium (50–70% compliance) request sequences produced increases in compliance to subsequent requests that had produced low compliance rates (<40%) during baseline. No systematic differences were observed between high and medium probability sequences. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Replication of a high-probability request sequence with varied interprompt times in a preschool setting

An intervention for noncompliance consisting of a series of requests promoting a high probability of compliance followed either 5 s or 20 s later by a request with a low probability of compliance was implemented with a preschool child with autism. Results indicated that applications of the request sequence with a shorter interprompt time resulted in higher rates of compliance, and longer interprompt times resulted in near-baseline rates of compliance.