An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: a comparison of international students and American students

The authors examined group differences in perceived discrimination and homesickness in a sample of 439 college students (198 international and 241 U.S. students) from 2 campuses of the same university. Within the international student group, the authors also examined relationships between homesickness, discrimination, age, English proficiency, and years of residence in the United States. Results indicated that international students experienced higher levels of discrimination and homesickness than did U.S. students. Age, English proficiency, and perceived discrimination predicted homesickness among the international students. Younger students, students with lower levels of English proficiency, and students with higher levels of perceived discrimination reported having higher levels of homesickness. Also, years of residence and race or ethnicity predicted international students' level of perceived discrimination. Being a European international student predicted lower levels of perceived discrimination than did being an international student from other regions of the world. The authors discuss implications for higher-education institutions and counseling personnel.     

Integrating stage and continuum models to explain processing of exercise messages and exercise initiation among sedentary college students.

Concepts from the transtheoretical model (J.O. Prochaska, C.C. DiClemente, & J.C. Norcross, 1992), theory of planned behavior (I. Ajzen, 1985), and the elaboration likelihood model (R.E. Petty & J.T. Cacioppo, 1986b) were used to examine how exercise readiness impacted processing of exercise messages and exercise initiation. Sedentary college students (n = 147) were assessed for exercise attitude, intent, behavior, and stage of change. Students also listed their thoughts after reading messages with either strong or weak arguments for exercise. Attitude predicted depth of message processing, but stage of change did not. Stage of change and intent at baseline predicted exercise adoption at 1- to 3-month follow-up (n = 134), with baseline activity moderating the effect of intent. Tailoring messages to recipients' depth of processing and interactive effects of intent and behavior on exercise adoption should be considered in future research.     

A comparison of observed and reported adult-infant interactions: Effects of perceived sex

Interactions of 16 adults (eight married couples whose youngest child was less than 2 1/2 years old) with a single actor infant, dressed as either a male or a female, were recorded and analyzed in four categories: direction of gaze, facial expression, physical contact with the infant, and toy used. After the interaction period, a 45-minute interview on child rearing was conducted with each member of the couple. Observed interactions were then compared with interview data. The results support previous studies which show that both male and female parents behave differently toward unfamiliar infants on the basis of perceived sex. However, parents, especially mothers, appeared unaware of their differential treatment of male and female infants. These results suggest subtle sex-typing of infants by adults.     

Self-efficacy and perceived control: cognitive mediators of pain tolerance

The cold-pressor task was used with 102 female undergraduates in 2 experiments to determine (a) whether self-efficacy has validity as a true causal determinant of behavior change or is a correlate of change that has already occurred and (b) how perceptions of control and self-efficacy interact to determine choice behavior, persistence, and the impact of an aversive stimulus. Results of Experiment 1 indicate that self-efficacy expectations affected performance beyond what would have been expected from past performance alone. Changes in self-efficacy expectations predicted changes in cold-pressor tolerance. These findings suggest that self-efficacy expectations can be causal determinants of behavior in an aversive situation. Results of Experiment 2 indicate that self-efficacy was separable from control and that performance was best if both high levels of perceived control and self-efficacy were present. These findings support the notion that self-efficacy expectations can mediate the desirability of providing control, in that those who benefit most from control are those who are most confident they can exercise it.     

Analysis of heart rate variability amongst cyclists under perceived variations of risk exposure

Cycling as a mode of travel provides an opportunity for many people to increase their levels of regular physical activity and contribute to their mental and physical health. Heart rate is often used as a means of measuring the intensity and energy expenditure of physical activity. However, heart rate is also linked to emotional factors such as anxiety and fear. Perceptions of risk due to external factors such as other road users and infrastructure may arouse such emotions in urban cyclists. The present study set out to investigate whether or not perceptions of risk among urban cyclists may lead to increased heart rates. Cyclists completed a test route in normal traffic conditions in Cork, Ireland and heart rates and self-reported risk ratings were recorded in real time. Evidence was found of a link between perceptions of risk and heart rates. This raises questions regarding the use of heart rate to estimate exercise intensity and energy expenditure during urban cycling. The perceptions of cyclists of their safety in relation to various road elements on familiar routes were also assessed, as well as specific events which they perceive to be high in risk. The results indicate that incidents involving car traffic and busy roads which offer no protection from interaction with car traffic are associated with greatest perceptions of risk.     

Framing social judgment: self-ingroup comparison and perceived discrimination

Members of disadvantaged groups often report that they are less vulnerable to discrimination than is the average member of their group. In two experiments, we examined how the framing of self-ingroup comparisons moderates this phenomenon. In Experiment 1, participants estimated the relative likelihood that either they, compared to the average member of their ingroup, would experience discrimination or that the average member of their ingroup, compared to themselves, would experience discrimination. In Experiment 2, a direct manipulation of self-ingroup similarity was added to this framing manipulation. Across the experiments, the results demonstrated that conditions highlighting differences between the individual and the group led participants to perceive themselves as much less vulnerable to discrimination than their group, relative to conditions highlighting similarities between the individual and the group.     

A daily process analysis of physical activity,sedentary behavior,and perceived cognitive abilities

ObjectivesThis study evaluated the role of both physical activity and sedentary behavior in daily perceptions of cognitive abilities and whether these relations exist within-person, between-person, or both.DesignNon-experimental, intensive longitudinal research using ecological momentary assessments.MethodCollege students wore accelerometers and provided end-of-day reports on physical activity, sedentary behavior, and perceived cognitive abilities for 14 days.ResultsAcross self-reports and objective measures of behavior, daily deviations in physical activity were positively associated with perceived cognitive abilities. Daily deviations in self-reported, but not objectively-assessed, sedentary behavior also were negatively associated with perceived cognitive abilities. Contrary to previous research, overall levels of physical activity and sedentary behaviors were not associated with perceived cognitive abilities.ConclusionsThese findings indicate that physical activity has a within- rather than between-person association with perceived cognitive abilities although between-person associations effects may require longer monitoring periods to manifest. Further research is needed to establish the direction of causality and resolve whether the nature (rather than quantity) of sedentary activities influences cognition.     

A measure of perceived pain and tobacco smoking interrelations: pilot validation of the pain and smoking inventory

Mounting evidence indicates that pain can motivate cigarette smoking behavior, smokers have reliably endorsed the use of tobacco to cope with pain, and there is reason to suspect that pain may impede smoking cessation. Smoking-related outcome expectancies are among the best predictors of cigarette consumption and relapse, and the goal of this pilot study was to develop a standardized measure of how tobacco smokers perceive their pain and smoking behavior to be interrelated (i.e. pain as a motivator of smoking, expectancies for smoking as a means of coping with pain, and pain as a barrier to quitting). Participants (N = 75) completed an online survey that was designed to assess interrelations between pain and tobacco smoking. The nine-item Pain and Smoking Inventory (PSI) demonstrated excellent internal consistency (α = .95). As expected, PSI scores were higher among smokers with chronic pain (vs. no pain), and were positively associated with established indices of both pain and tobacco smoking dependence. These results corroborate the notion that smokers can effectively communicate perceptions of interrelations between their pain and smoking behavior. Future research is needed to establish reliability and validity of the PSI among larger, more diverse samples of smokers with varying levels of pain. Future work should also examine PSI scores as predictors of smoking cessation outcomes, and whether PSI data may usefully inform the development of tailored interventions for smokers in pain.     

Fluctuating dynamics of perceived exertion in constant-power exercise

ObjectivesTo reveal and study the fluctuating dynamics of perceived exertion (PE) during constant-power exercise performed under different conditions (duration, intensity, and termination).DesignA pilot and two subsequent experimental studies were performed. The studies consisted of manipulating workload and measuring fluctuating perceived exertion dynamics throughout the cycling task.MethodsIn a pilot study Borg's rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was measured every 15 s in 2 groups of 9 participants each (using RPE 6-20 and CR10 scales, respectively) cycling at heavy intensity until volitional exhaustion. The percentage of participants alternating increased and decreased RPE values (fluctuating dynamics) was calculated. In 2 subsequent experiments PE changes (increase/decrease perceptions) were reported when occurring in 2 groups of 13 participants cycling at a moderate intensity for 30 and 60 min, respectively (Experiment 1), and in another group of 12 participants cycling at heavy intensity until volitional exhaustion (Experiment 2). The individual time series of “increase”/“decrease” reports were divided into 5 non-overlapping temporal windows, and the percentages of “PE increase” were calculated for each window.ResultsIn the pilot study 66.6% (RPE 6-20 group) and 33.3% (CR10 group) of the participants showed an RPE fluctuating dynamics during the exercise. However, all participants showed a clear PE fluctuating dynamics during the moderate and heavy intensity exercises performed in Experiment 1 and Experiment 2, respectively. Nevertheless, a transition towards a PE non-fluctuating dynamics (dominated by “PE increase” reports) was noticed in Experiment 2 while approaching volitional exhaustion.ConclusionsPE seems to have a dominant fluctuating dynamics during constant-power cycling performed under different conditions (duration, intensity, and termination) that changes towards a non-fluctuating dynamics when approaching the volitional exhaustion point.     

The effects of perceived social norms on handwashing behaviour in students

Handwashing is widely considered the most effective method of preventing the spread of infectious illness. Exploring the determinants of handwashing is vital to the development of interventions to increase this behaviour. A survey based on Social Norms Theory assessed handwashing frequency and perceptions of peer handwashing in 255 university students. Participants reported their own handwashing frequency, and how often they thought their peers washed their hands in particular circumstances, to determine whether misperceptions around handwashing exist, and whether these influence the behaviour of individuals. Gender was found to be a significant determinant of handwashing frequency as females reported washing their hands significantly more often than males. Participants also believed they washed their hands significantly more frequently than their peers. Perceived peer handwashing frequency was significantly correlated with participants’ own behaviour. This effect was seen in overall handwashing and in food, waste and illness-related hand washing. These results suggest perceived social norms around hand washing have a clear association with individual behaviour. Future research might test the effectiveness of a social norms intervention in other settings which carry an increased risk of infection spread.     

Effects of exercise on anxiety: A review

Abstract

The focus of this review is physical exercise and its possible effectiveness as a means of reducing anxiety. This review is based on English language literature and covers the time period from 1958 to 1988. It provides an overview of the results of research studies carried out in the area of physical fitness and psychological health, more specifically anxiety. In doing so, it draws attention to methodological limitations associated with a number of these research studies. In addition, it describes the level of exercise considered necessary to achieve improved cardio-respiratory fitness (training effect). Conclusions are made which suggest mild support for the positive effect of exercise with some individuals for reducing anxiety. Some speculative explanations as to why exercise may be effective in reducing levels of state anxiety are discussed.     

Extracurricular activities of Dutch University students and their effect on employment opportunities as perceived by both students and organizations

Research on biographical data suggests that recruiters draw inferences about candidates' abilities and attributes based on résumé information. However, few studies have explored students' attributions with regard to the experiences that are relevant in enhancing employment opportunities. The aim of the present study is to fill this gap by analyzing the effect of university students' extracurricular activities (ECAs) on their perceived employment opportunities. Specifically, we combine a large sample of students with recruiters from a wide range of sectors in the Netherlands. Students completed a questionnaire, while recruiters participated in an experiment and semi‐structured interviews. Students' expectations about the value of ECAs for their employment opportunities were found to be misaligned with recruiters' viewpoints. Students expected academic performance to be more relevant for employment opportunities than ECAs, whereas recruiters stated the opposite. Students expected an internship to be the most valued ECA, whereas most recruiters prioritized a board year and emphasized students' motivation and ability to demonstrate the learning gained from ECAs in general. Implications for further biodata research are discussed.     

Effects of solution viscosity on perceived saltiness and sweetness

Subjects used magnitude estimation to judge the perceived saltiness or sweetness of a series of aqueous solutions containing five suprathreshold concentrations of NaCl or sucrose and thickened with sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC). In the first experiment, CMC-H (high viscosity form) was used to thicken a series of sucrose and NaCl solutions to six viscosity levels (1–2,025 centistokes). At the highest viscosity levels, significant decreases occurred in the perceived taste intensity of only the lower concentrations of sucrose and NaCl. A second experiment determined that variations in the quantity of solution sampled from cups did not systematically influence judgments of saltiness when the starting volume was 10 ml. In the third experiment, aqueous solutions containing sucrose or NaCl were thickened with the low (L), medium (M), or high (H) viscosity form of CMC (1–1,296 centistokes). CMC-L-thickened solutions produced little or no suppression of perceived taste intensity, whereas viscous CMC-H solutions produced significant reductions in perceived saltiness and sweetness.     

Effects of religious stigma and harm on perceived psychopathology

Prior research suggests that assessment of the pathology of religious beliefs is influenced by conventionality and harm, with less conventional and more harmful beliefs resulting in higher pathology ratings. This study, involving 313 participants, investigated levels of pathology assigned to religious beliefs when the beliefs were either helpful or less severely harmful than those used in prior research, and when the associated religion was either stigmatised (Islam) or non-stigmatised (Christianity). Results indicate that an attenuated form of harm results in elevated pathology ratings. Furthermore, religious stigma impacts these perceptions when beliefs are harmful but not when beliefs are helpful. Ratings in the harm condition were higher for Christianity than for Islam, suggesting that perceived pathology of religious beliefs may depend less on general stigma assumptions and more on perceived consistency between harmful beliefs and assumed religious schemata.     

Disordered eating attitudes and self-objectification among physically active and sedentary female college students

The authors' purpose in this study was to examine objectification theory (B. L. Fredrickson & T. A. Roberts, 1997) among physically active (n=115) and sedentary (n=70) women. The women completed the Self-Objectification Questionnaire (Noll & Fredrickson, 1998), the Body Surveillance and Body Shame subscales of the Objectified Body Consciousness Scale (McKinley & Hyde, 1996), the Appearance Anxiety Scale (Dion, Dion, & J. Keelan, 1990), a flow experiences measure (Tiggemann & Slater, 2001), and the Eating Attitudes Test-26 (Garner, Olmsted, Bohr, & Garfinkel, 1982). Self-objectification directly and indirectly (via body shame and appearance anxiety) predicted disordered eating in both groups of women. Physically active women reported more frequent flow experiences than sedentary women. Women high in self-objectification reported higher levels of body surveillance, body shame, appearance anxiety, and self-reported disordered eating attitudes. Body surveillance was related to disordered eating only among women with high self-objectification. Appearance anxiety was negatively associated with flow experiences among sedentary women. Objectification theory provides a useful framework for understanding factors related to disordered eating attitudes among active and sedentary college women.     

Reactions to perceived deprivation in ingroup and outgroup: a cross-cultural comparison

An experiment is reported in which the reactions of observers to the relative and absolute deprivation of others are assessed. Eighty German and 80 Italian subjects made decisions about ingroup (own nationality) or outgroup (foreign) protagonists suffering high or low relative and absolute deprivation. Results showed that subjects were more likely to take social action that violated some rule when the protagonist was in high rather than low absolute deprivation. Racist subjects were somewhat more likely to satisfy the request of a deprived ingroup protagonist whereas non-racist subjects favoured the deprived outgroup. No differences emerged for non-deprived protagonists. Overall, Germans tended to take social action only when the protagonist suffered high absolute deprivation whereas Italians took action regardless of degree of absolute deprivation. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Friendship, perceived mattering and happiness: a study of American and Turkish college students

Although it is well established that friendship is a consistent correlate of happiness, less is known about how friendship experiences might promote happiness. The current investigation addressed this gap by testing a mediational model proposing that perceived mattering explains the association of friendship quality with happiness among college students in Turkey and the United States. An alternative model suggesting friendship quality as the mediator was also tested to enhance confidence in the proposed model. SEM analyses revealed that perceived mattering mediated the association of friendship with happiness only in the American sample. In the Turkish sample, friendship quality mediated the association between mattering and happiness. Findings highlight the importance of cross-cultural research and suggest that the underlying processes and psychological mechanisms related to the friendship-happiness link might be different in different cultures.     

Experimental comparison of dyspnea and pain

Dyspnea and pain are similarly unpleasant, alarming physical sensations, but studies examining both sensations in combination are lacking. In the present study, dyspnea was induced in 7 healthy volunteers by breathing through inspiratory resistive loads and the effects were compared with those of a heat pain stimulus. End-tidal partial pressures of carbon dioxide (PET_CO2), inspiratory time (Ti), breathing frequency (f), experienced unpleasantness, and intensity were measured. No difference was observed between dyspnea and pain in experienced intensity and unpleasantness (p >.05). During dyspneic stimulation, slightly higherTi was found than for pain (p<.08). PET_CO2 showed slight increases during the dyspneic versus the baseline and painful conditions (ΔPET_CO2=1.5 and 1.3 mmHg, respectively;p<.01 andp<.05). This study shows that the effects of dyspnea and heat pain can be compared within one experiment; both stimuli can be presented with similar intensity and unpleasantness, which is a prerequisite for comparing responses to them. The changes in PET_CO2 between our conditions were minimal, allowing an application of the present design to future fMRI studies.     

Effects of colour on perceived depth: Review of experiments and evalutaion of theories

A selective and evaluative review of experiments and theories dealing with the effect of colour on perceived depth is presented. It has long been known that equidistant objects that differ in colour may appear as if they are located at different distances. The present paper emphasizes the theoretical importance of distinguishing between monocular and binocular effects. There is at present no completely satisfactory explanation of the monocular effect but chromatic aberration seems to be a critical factor. The binocular effect (colour stereoscopy) is most probably due to disparity between differently coloured images on the retinae. The stereoscopic theories of Einthoven (1885) and Vos (1960, 1963, 1966) are discussed; available evidence favours the latter.     

Effects of partial occlusion on perceived surface segregation

Tests are reported of the possibility that local information from contour junctions and from corners of intersecting surfaces is used for perceived surface segregation. Stimuli were two intersecting squares with small disks occluding different parts of the squares. The perceived segregation of the squares from one another decreased as the amount of occlusion of parts of the squares increased. This segregation was less when disks occluded parts of contours than when disks occluded parts entirely inside the squares. Occlusion of parts of contours reduced segregation independently of whether contour junctions or corners were visible or invisible, both where the intersecting surfaces were transparent squares and when they were outlined squares. The present findings show that local information from contour junctions or from corners is not used for surface segregation, and confirm that this segregation is determined by global processes of grouping of areas and of extrapolation of contours.