人际关系与高中生内外化问题的关系:自尊的中介及性别的调节作用

为了解亲子关系、师生关系和同伴关系对高中生内外化问题的相对影响大小,并探究自尊的中介作用,采用问卷法对北京4所中学共计794名高中生进行了调查。结果发现：（1）师生关系对于高中生内外化问题的影响大于亲子关系和同伴关系的影响;（2）自尊在亲子、师生、同伴关系与高中生内化问题中起中介作用,而在亲子、师生同伴关系与外化问题中的中介作用不显著;（3）性别差异检验发现,自尊在女生同伴关系与内化问题中起完全中介作用,而在男生同伴关系与内化问题的中介作用不显著。     

Childhood Temperament and Family Environment as Predictors of Internalizing and Externalizing Trajectories From Ages 5 to 17

Childhood temperament and family environment have been shown to predict internalizing and externalizing behavior; however, less is known about how temperament and family environment interact to predict changes in problem behavior. We conducted latent growth curve modeling on a sample assessed at ages 5, 7, 10, 14, and 17 (N = 337). Externalizing behavior decreased over time for both sexes, and internalizing behavior increased over time for girls only. Two childhood variables (fear/shyness and maternal depression) predicted boys' and girls' age-17 internalizing behavior, harsh discipline uniquely predicted boys' age-17 internalizing behavior, and maternal depression and lower family income uniquely predicted increases in girls' internalizing behavior. For externalizing behavior, an array of temperament, family environment, and Temperament × Family Environment variables predicted age-17 behavior for both sexes. Sex differences were present in the prediction of externalizing slopes, with maternal depression predicting increases in boys' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was low, and harsh discipline predicting increases in girls' externalizing behavior only when impulsivity was high or when fear/shyness was low.     

Conflict in the Latino parent-youth dyad: the role of emotional support from the opposite parent.

In the present study, the author examined the independent and interactive effects of support and conflict within a triadic familial context (mother-father-youth). The sample consisted of 6th- and 7th-grade inner-city Latino youths (N = 329; 142 boys, 187 girls). Using multiple regression techniques, level of conflict with either mother or father was consistently related to higher levels of both boys' and girls' internalizing and externalizing symptoms. Interaction effects were significant in predicting boys' externalizing behavior problems--a supportive parental relationship significantly reduced the risk associated with high conflict with the opposite parent. For boys' internalizing problems, mother and father support served a protective function regardless of the level of conflict with the opposite parent. Conflict with the mother was especially detrimental for Latina girls--highly conflictive mother-daughter relationships were associated with increased internalizing and externalizing symptomatology, and father support added little in predicting symptomatology. The study adds to the understanding of risk and protection in Latino families and underscores the importance of examining the parent-youth relationship from a triadic perspective, noting similarities and differences in mother-son, mother-daughter, father-son, and father-daughter relations.     

行为抑制性、母亲养育方式和学步儿问题行为的关系

采用实验室观察及问卷法,考察学步儿行为抑制性、母亲养育方式和问题行为的关系。结果发现:(1)行为抑制性正向预测内隐问题行为;母亲拒绝正向预测外显问题行为;母亲保护担忧负向预测外显问题行为。(2)性别能调节母亲养育方式与问题行为之间的关系,母亲鼓励独立负向预测男孩内隐问题行为;母亲拒绝正向预测女孩内隐问题行为;保护担忧负向预测男孩外显问题行为;母亲惩罚正向预测男孩外显问题行为。     

Gender roles and adjustment in elementary-school children: A multidimensional approach

The present study of fourth through sixth graders examined the relationships between their school adjustment and the extent to which their self-concepts conformed to stereotypic gender roles. Several dimensions of gender roles were assessed. Adjustments was assessed by teacher ratings of externalizing and of internalizing symptoms. Among boys, more stereotypic self-concepts were associated with high levels of externalizing symptoms. Among girls, stereotypy was associated with high levels of internalizing. Discussion emphasized the practical importance of these relationships between gender-role stereotypy and poor adjustment, since externalizing and internalizing symptoms constitute the most frequent reasons for clinical referral among boys and among girls, respectively. Further findings, however, indicated that conclusions about the unfavorable adjustment correlates of stereotypy should not be extended to the less gender-typical symptoms (i.e., neither to boys' internalizing nor to girls' externalizing symptoms). Implications of the findings were also discussed with regard to earlier results obtained with adults that suggest mental health advantages associated with higher levels of masculinity. It was suggested that the contradiction between adult and child results partially reflects an emphasis upon externalizing symptoms with children, while studies employing adults have emphasized internalizing ones.The authors acknowledge the assistance of the Jefferson County School District, and especially Ms. Diane Hill, Director of Research, for their assistance in this study. The following persons are thanked for their assistance in interviewing children and collecting data: Heidi Hauge, Carol Hathaway-Clark, Judith King, and Ed Priddy. The authors also wish to thank Drs. Ann Boggiano and William Hodges for commenting on earlier drafts of this paper.     

Individual differences in boys' and girls' timing and tempo of puberty: modeling development with nonlinear growth models

Pubertal development is a nonlinear process progressing from prepubescent beginnings through biological, physical, and psychological changes to full sexual maturity. To tether theoretical concepts of puberty with sophisticated longitudinal, analytical models capable of articulating pubertal development more accurately, we used nonlinear mixed-effects models to describe both the timing and tempo of pubertal development in the sample of 364 White boys and 373 White girls measured across 6 years as part of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development. Individual differences in timing and tempo were extracted with models of logistic growth. Differential relations emerged for how boys' and girls' timing and tempo of development were related to physical characteristics (body mass index, height, and weight) and psychological outcomes (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and risky sexual behavior). Timing and tempo are associated in boys but not girls. Pubertal timing and tempo are particularly important for predicting psychological outcomes in girls but only sparsely related to boys' psychological outcomes. Results highlight the importance of considering the nonlinear nature of puberty and expand the repertoire of possibilities for examining important aspects of how and when pubertal processes contribute to development.     

Predicting preschoolers' externalizing behaviors from toddler temperament,conflict, and maternal negativity

Rarely have researchers elucidated early childhood precursors of externalizing behaviors for boys and girls from a normative sample. Toddlers (N = 104; 52 girls) were observed interacting with a same-sex peer and their mothers, and indices of conflict-aggression, emotion and behavior dysregulation, parenting, and child externalizing problems were obtained. Results indicated that boys initiated more conflictual-aggressive interactions as toddlers and had more externalizing difficulties 2 years later, yet girls' (not boys') conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 were related to subsequent externalizing problems. When such initiations were controlled for, emotional-behavioral undercontrol at age 2 also independently predicted externalizing problems at age 4. Moreover, the relation between conflict-aggressive initiations at age 2 and externalizing problems at age 4 was strongest for dysregulated toddlers. Finally, the relation between age 2 conflict-aggressive initiations and age 4 externalizing problems was strongest for those toddlers who incurred high levels of maternal negativity. These findings illustrate temperament by parenting connections in the development of externalizing problems.     

Parentification,Stress, and Problem Behavior of Adolescents who have a Parent with Mental Health Problems

When adolescents live with a parent with mental illness, they often partly take over the parental role. Little is known about the consequences of this so‐called parentification on the adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. This survey study examined this effect cross‐sectionally and longitudinally in a sample of 118 adolescents living with a parent suffering from mental health problems. In addition, the study examined a possible indirect effect via perceived stress. Path analyses were used to examine the direct associations between parentification and problem behavior as well as the indirect relations via perceived stress. The results showed that parentification was associated with both internalizing and externalizing problems cross‐sectionally, but it predicted only internalizing problems 1 year later. An indirect effect of parentification on adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems via perceived stress was found, albeit only cross‐sectionally. These findings imply that parentification can be stressful for adolescents who live with a parent with mental health problems, and that a greater awareness of parentification is needed to prevent adolescents from developing internalizing problems.     

共情与青少年内外化问题的关系及影响机制

内外化问题是青少年最常见的心理行为问题,共情与青少年内外化问题具有重要联系,但以往研究青少年内外化问题的时候不注重共情不同成分的区分;即使区分了共情的不同成分,认知共情和情绪共情作为共情的不同成分和内外化问题的关系仍旧存在一定争议,且共情对内外化问题影响的机制鲜有探讨。本文首先综述了认知共情和情绪共情与青少年内外化问题的关系,并借助共情的发生过程（自我-他人模型）理论、发展过程（风险性发展模型）理论和相关神经生理因素,为理解共情对青少年内外化问题的影响机制提供了解释。未来研究可明确共情的定义,发展更生态化的测评方式,并进一步探索影响因素及机制,结合和关注个体特点、特殊群体及文化背景,以便为揭示共情与青少年内外化问题构建更系统的理论。     

Gender differences in the development and adult outcome of co-occurring depression and delinquency in adolescence

Using a dual trajectory modeling approach, we examined co-occurring trajectories of depression and delinquency from age 11 to age 18 and their relation to adult outcome six years later in a community sample of 1423 (674 boys) adolescents. We also examined the effects of childhood externalizing, internalizing, and social problems on trajectory membership for depression and delinquency. The results showed that although more girls than boys were likely to follow high-level, co-occurring trajectories on depression and delinquency, the adult outcome of adolescents following high-level trajectories on both domains was poorer for boys than for girls. However, the combination of decreasing depression symptoms and increasing delinquency symptoms across adolescence was related with poorer adult outcomes for girls compared to boys. Finally, whereas boys' high-level co-occurring trajectory of depression and delinquency was predicted by childhood aggression, girls' equivalent trajectory was predicted by childhood depression and delinquency. The findings support the "gender paradox" effect (Loeber & Keenan, 1994) stating that in disorders with an unequal gender ratio, members of the gender with the lower prevalence rate tend to be more seriously affected in terms of comorbidity and poor outcome.     

Partner aggression and children's externalizing problems: maternal and partner warmth as protective factors.

This research examined maternal and partner warmth as moderators of the relation between men's intimate partner aggression and children's externalizing problems. Participants were 157 mothers and their children (ages 7-9 years). Results indicate that maternal and partner warmth each moderated the relation between men's intimate partner aggression and children's externalizing problems. Partner-to-mother aggression was positively associated with child reports of externalizing problems at lower, but not higher, levels of maternal warmth. Similarly, partner-to-mother aggression was positively associated with mother reports of girls', but not boys', externalizing problems at lower, but not higher, levels of maternal warmth. On the other hand, the moderating effect of partner warmth was in the opposite direction and was found only with child-reported externalizing problems. Increased levels of partner-to-mother aggression related positively to child-reported externalizing problems when partners were higher, but not lower, in warmth.     

Attachment, Friendship, and Psychosocial Functioning in Early Adolescence

Fifth-graders' (N = 162; 93 girls) relationships with parents and friends were examined with respect to their main and interactive effects on psychosocial functioning. Participants reported on parental support, the quality of their best friendships, self-worth, and perceptions of social competence. Peers reported on aggression, shyness and withdrawal, and rejection and victimization. Mothers reported on psychological adjustment. Perceived parental support and friendship quality predicted higher global self-worth and social competence and less internalizing problems. Perceived parental support predicted fewer externalizing problems, and paternal (not maternal) support predicted lower rejection and victimization. Friendship quality predicted lower rejection and victimization for only girls. Having a supportive mother protected boys from the effects of low-quality friendships on their perceived social competence. High friendship quality buffered the effects of low maternal support on girls' internalizing difficulties.     

Emotional Development in the Context of Conflict: The Indirect Effects of Interparental Violence on Children

Our study examined the links between interparental violence and children’s internalizing and externalizing problems by testing a theoretical model for indirect pathways from interparental violence to childhood emotional problems. Our theoretical model suggests that interparental violence is associated with maternal depression, maternal depression is associated with the use of maladaptive parenting practices, and maternal maladaptive parenting practices are associated with children’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Participants included 359 women and one of their children between the ages of 5- and 12-years-old. Sixty-four of these women resided in a battered women’s shelter, 100 of these women resided in the community but had a history of interparental violence, and 195 of these women were recruited as a comparison sample. Our theoretical model was supported by the results of structural equation modeling. However, a variation of the broader indirect pathway, one which indicates that interparental violence is related to children’s internalizing and externalizing problems through maternal depression, which is then directly associated with children’s internalizing and externalizing problems, was also supported. Results are discussed in terms of their theoretical and applied implications and suggest that longitudinal studies that clarify temporal relationships in the model are warranted.     

The Co-Development of Parenting Stress and Childhood Internalizing and Externalizing Problems

Although the detrimental influence of parenting stress on child problem behavior is well established, it remains unknown how these constructs affect each other over time. In accordance with a transactional model, this study investigates how the development of internalizing and externalizing problems is related to the development of parenting stress in children aged 4–9. Mothers of 1582 children participated in three one-year interval data waves. Internalizing and externalizing problems as well as parenting stress were assessed by maternal self-report. Interrelated development of parenting with internalizing and externalizing problems was examined using Latent Growth Modeling. Directionality of effects was further investigated by using cross-lagged models. Parenting stress and externalizing problems showed a decrease over time, whereas internalizing problems remained stable. Initial levels of parenting stress were related to initial levels of both internalizing and externalizing problems. Decreases in parenting stress were related to larger decreases in externalizing problems and to the (stable) course of internalizing problems. Some evidence for reciprocity was found such that externalizing problems were associated with parenting stress and vice versa over time, specifically for boys. Our findings support the transactional model in explaining psychopathology.     

Parental Discipline and Externalizing Behavior Problems in Early Childhood: The Roles of Moral Regulation and Child Gender

We tested whether individual differences in a component of early conscience mediated relations between parental discipline and externalizing behavior problems in 238 3.5-year-olds. Parents contributed assessments of discipline practices and child moral regulation. Observations of children's behavioral restraint supplemented parental reports. Parents and teachers reported on child externalizing symptoms. Parental induction, warm responsiveness, and less frequent use of physical punishment generally were associated with higher levels of moral regulation and fewer externalizing problems. Moreover, moral regulation partially mediated relationships between discipline and externalizing symptoms, with the clearest case of mediation involving induction. However, relationships were found for boys only. Results support a mediation model wherein inductive and physical discipline may influence the expression of boys' externalizing behavior through effects on conscience. Finally, results suggest that different developmental processes may be associated with early externalizing problems in boys and girls, and confirm that fathers' reports contribute to our understanding of the origins of child externalizing problems.     

童年中期受欺负与问题行为之关系: 一项两年纵向研究

摘要：采用同伴评价和教师评价对733名小学3年级儿童进行为期两年的追踪研究,通过结构方程模型,考察受欺负与两类问题行为的相互预测关系。结果发现：（1）受欺负与外化问题行为和内化问题行为呈显著正相关。（2）受欺负在两年之间呈现较高的稳定性;而外化问题行为和内化问题行为则表现出较低程度的稳定性。 （3）结构方程模型结果表明,三年级时的受欺负可以显著预测五年级时的外化问题行为,而三年级时的外化问题行为不能显著预测五年级时的受欺负;三年级时的内化问题行为可以显著预测五年级时的受欺负,而三年级时的受欺负不能显著预测五年级时的内化问题行为。在受欺负与问题行为的相互预测关系中,内化问题行为更有可能成为受欺负的触发因素,而外化问题行为则更有可能是对受欺负的回应。     

Personal and interpersonal antecedents and consequences of victimization by peers

This study was designed to determine whether the personal and interpersonal difficulties that characterize victimized children are antecedents of victimization, consequences of victimization, or both. Boys and girls in the 3rd through 7th grades (N = 173, mean age = 11.3 years) were assessed on victimization, personal variables (internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and physical strength), and interpersonal variables (number of friends and peer rejection). One year later children were assessed again on all variables. Internalizing problems, physical weakness, and peer rejection contributed uniquely to gains in victimization over time. Moreover, initial victimization predicted increases in later internalizing symptoms and peer rejection. These reciprocal influences suggest the existence of a vicious cycle that supports the strong temporal stability of peer victimization.     

The reciprocal relations between teachers' perceptions of children's behavior problems and teacher-child relationships in the first preschool year

To examine the reciprocal relations between teacher-child relationships and children's behavior problems, the authors analyzed cross-lagged longitudinal data on teacher-child relationships and children's internalizing and externalizing problems using a structural equation modeling approach. The homeroom teachers of 105 first-year preschoolers aged 2-3 years filled in the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale and the Child Behavior Checklist/2-3, first at 3 months after the children's preschool entrance and then at the end of the first preschool year. Results showed significant cross-wave reciprocal relations between externalizing problems and teacher-child conflict and significant cross-wave relation from early internalizing problems to later teacher-child conflict. However, the cross-wave associations between internalizing and externalizing problems and teacher-child closeness were not significant.     

Construct validation of individuating and relating autonomy orientations in culturally Chinese adolescents

Adolescent individuating and relating autonomies were compared to the concepts of detachment and public conformity. Participants included 573 junior high and 673 senior high school students. Each type of autonomy had a distinctive function in intrapsychic or interpersonal domains and clearly differed from detachment and public conformity. In the competing model analysis, individuating autonomy was more associated than relating autonomy with adjustment variables in the personal domain, such as the global and personal aspects of self-esteem, the personal aspect of happiness, and internalizing problems (mainly anxiety and depression). Relating autonomy was more associated than individuating autonomy with adjustment variables in the interpersonal domain such as social skills and externalizing problems (mainly aggression and delinquent behaviour).     

父母教养与MAOA基因rs6323多态性对学前儿童外化问题的共同作用

采用G×E交互作用的研究范式,以295名学前儿童（M=4.49）和其母亲、父亲作为研究对象,探讨母亲和父亲的教养方式与MAOA基因rs6323多态性对学前儿童外化问题行为的影响。结果发现：母亲、父亲教养方式和MAOA基因多态性对学前儿童外化问题行为的影响存在性别差异,预测男孩外化问题行为时,母亲和父亲教养方式的主效应显著,与MAOA基因多态性的交互作用不显著;在预测女孩外化问题行为时,父亲教养方式的主效应显著,母亲教养方式与MAOA基因多态性的交互作用显著,显著性区域分析发现,携带T等位基因的女孩更容易受到母亲消极教养的不利影响而产生更多外化问题行为,也更容易受到其积极教养的有利影响而减少外化问题行为,这一结果支持差别易感性理论模型。