启动语言对汉-英双语者场景一致性判断的影响

采用眼动技术考察启动语言对场景一致性判断的影响, 要求汉-英双语者判断启动短语与图片场景的一致性。研究发现, 启动语言影响汉-英双语者的场景知觉：(1)无论是英语短语启动, 还是汉语短语启动, 前景物体均能够更多更早地获得关注, 这与英语短语和汉语短语的所指相同有关; (2)语言特性影响被试的眼动轨迹：在英语短语启动下, 背景信息后置引导被试对背景进行了额外的、快速的关注; 在汉语短语启动下, 被试的注视由前景区转至背景区的时间较晚且注视比例较小; (3)任务加工深度影响汉英双语者的场景知觉。     

二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻

采用空间启动范式考察二语情绪概念理解中是否激活空间信息, 即是否存在空间隐喻。实验1探讨单通道二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻, 实验2则探讨跨通道二语情绪概念理解中的空间隐喻。实验1中让32名母语为汉语的汉-英双语者先看一个英文情绪词, 接着进行视觉空间位置判断, 最后再让被试判断之前呈现的情绪词是积极词还是消极词。实验2中40名母语为汉语的汉-英双语者完成跟实验1类似的任务, 不同之处为英文情绪词以听觉形式呈现。两个实验的结果表明, 跨语言和跨通道的情绪词的空间隐喻受到空间位置方向的影响。垂直位置方向上, 二语情绪词在单通道和跨通道中都表现出了空间隐喻; 水平位置方向上, 二语情绪词没有表现出空间隐喻。该结果说明了情绪概念的空间隐喻会受到个体经验的影响, 进一步支持了知觉符号理论。     

语言经验可以改变双语者的主导语言

使用语义启动词汇判断范式,研究维吾尔语-汉语和朝鲜语-汉语大学生双语者词汇加工的模式如何受语言经验的影响.实验一表明,维汉双语者既存在语言内、也存在语言间的语义启动效应.不管目标词是维吾尔语还是汉语,以维吾尔语(母语)为启动词的效应要大于以汉语为启动词的效应.实验二表明,朝汉双语者语言内产生了类似大小的效应;但当目标词是汉语、启动词是朝鲜语时,却没有启动效应.进一步的问卷调查表明,朝汉双语被试虽在小学和中学阶段听说和阅读母语的概率大于听说和阅读汉语,但在大学阶段却是汉语占优势;维汉双语被试在小学、中学、大学时的口头语言都是母语占优势;虽然他们在大学阶段阅读汉语的概率要大于母语,但两者的差异要明显小于朝汉双语被试.这些结果说明,语言经验可以改变词汇形式表征的加工速率以及从形式表征出发激活词汇意义的模式,从而使得第二语言有可能取代母语而上升为主导语言.     

道德概念的垂直空间隐喻及其对认知的影响

采用不同的研究方法考察道德概念的垂直空间隐喻表征, 及其对于人的认知的影响。实验1采用迫选法, 在明确要求被试把道德词放在垂直空间位置的上方或下方时, 发现在意识层面, 被试倾向于把道德词放在垂直空间的上部, 把不道德词放在垂直空间的下部。实验2采用无关任务法, 对实验词语作褒贬义判断, 实验结果发现, 道德词出现在空间的上方(相对于下方)时, 被试对道德词作褒贬义判断的时间短; 不道德词出现在空间的下方(相对于上方)时, 被试作褒贬义判断的时间则短。实验3通过记忆任务发现, 道德概念的启动使得个体高估了相继出现的客体的高度和长度, 不道德概念的启动使得个体低估了其高度和长度。三个实验的结果表明, 汉语道德概念的垂直空间隐喻具有心理现实性; 汉语道德概念的垂直空间隐喻既存在于无意识层面又可以在意识的层面显现; 汉语道德概念的垂直空间隐喻表征会影响对物体的高度和长度的估计, 表现为汉语道德概念隐喻表征的“认知偏移效应”。     

听觉任务下汉语母语者对不同类型时间句的加工

采用听觉刺激-口头问答任务考察汉语母语者对指示性时间句和顺序性时间句的加工。结果表明:(1)对指示性时间句,被试的加工不受听觉刺激的呈现位置影响,时间概念与空间知觉之间无法形成对应的自动化联结;(2)对顺序性时间句,汉语母语者对出现在前方的"较早"事件和出现在后方的"较晚"事件反应快,出现了隐喻一致性效应,即汉语母语者更倾向于用"前"表示过去,用"后"表示未来。整个研究表明,对于汉语母语者而言,"自我参照点"和"时间参照点"两大时间隐喻系统都具有心理现实性,二者之间的区别在于是否有运动经验参与,并由此造成汉语母语者在听觉任务中对指示性时间句和顺序性时间句加工的差异。     

句子启动范式下的道德概念空间隐喻:匹配抑制还是匹配易化?

本研究在四个实验中通过应用句子启动范式来考察道德概念空间隐喻的匹配抑制与匹配易化。实验1中,被试先阅读一个含有垂直空间信息的句子,然后立即对随后出现的一个词进行道德词或者不道德词的分类判断。实验2和实验3分别要求被试关注句子中空间信息的终止位置或起始位置。实验4设置了延迟反应,要求被试在句子消失4秒后再进行词汇分类判断。结果显示,前三个实验都出现了明显的道德概念空间隐喻的非绑定性的匹配抑制,即"下-道德"或者"上-不道德",而在实验4中出现了隐喻的非绑定性的匹配易化,即"下-不道德"。这一结果证实空间信息句子的加工确实能够激活道德隐喻。但是由于句子加工时间较长,如果空间信息与道德概念占用相同的资源,就会导致道德空间隐喻的匹配抑制。如果有足够时间加工句子中的空间信息,就能够启动随后的道德概念加工,出现匹配易化。可见,资源的竞争与激活是道德概念空间隐喻出现匹配抑制和匹配易化的关键。     

不可预期条件下汉英双语者的语言切换研究

分别用图片命名和词汇判断任务考察汉英双语者在不可预期条件下进行的语言切换。实验一中,当被试分别用英语和汉语命名图片时,英语和汉语出现了相等的切换代价。实验二中,当被试进行词汇判断时,只有英语出现了切换代价;而汉语没有出现。研究表明,双语者语言产生与理解中切换的认知过程有本质的差异且预期条件的变化影响了语言产生中的切换。     

汉、英句法结构相似性对英语句法加工的影响

本研究采用句法判断任务,考察了汉英句法结构相似性对英语句法加工的影响.30名英语高熟练和29名英语低熟练水平的汉语母语者参加了实验.结果发现,汉英句法结构的相似性和英语的熟练程度均影响英语句法的加工.具体表现为,与汉语句法结构相似性越高的英语句子,句法判断的准确率越高;被试英语熟练度越高,句法判断的准确率越高.研究结果表明,母语经验是影响第二语言句法加工的重要因素.     

空间意象图式在时空隐喻理解中的作用

英语和汉语都有"时间动"和"自我动"两种用空间词汇表达时间概念的时空隐喻系统。但语料不能证明人们一定是借助空间来思考时间。实验一用不同视角的空间图片引导时空隐喻句,组成一致与不一致的条件来考察被试反应时,发现空间引导影响了隐喻句的加工。实验二用时空隐喻句引导空间图片,发现时间句对空间关系加工无引导作用。结论:时间概念和空间概念具有共同的意象图式,人们借助空间图式思考时间,但时空隐喻映射是单向的。     

道德概念净脏隐喻映射的偏向性

基于概念隐喻理论探讨道德概念净脏隐喻映射的偏向性。实验一考察洁净和肮脏启动对中性刺激道德判断的影响,实验二考察道德和不道德启动对中性刺激净脏判断的影响。结果发现:(1)洁净和肮脏启动下被试对中性刺激的道德判断差异不显著;(2)道德词和不道德词启动下被试对中性刺激的净脏判断差异显著,相比不道德词启动,道德词启动下被试更倾向于对中性刺激作洁净判断。研究结果说明,道德概念净脏隐喻映射存在偏向性,从道德概念目标域到净脏始源域的隐喻映射力量更强。     

Does language shape thought? Mandarin and English speakers' conceptions of time

Does the language you speak affect how you think about the world? This question is taken up in three experiments. English and Mandarin talk about time differently--English predominantly talks about time as if it were horizontal, while Mandarin also commonly describes time as vertical. This difference between the two languages is reflected in the way their speakers think about time. In one study, Mandarin speakers tended to think about time vertically even when they were thinking for English (Mandarin speakers were faster to confirm that March comes earlier than April if they had just seen a vertical array of objects than if they had just seen a horizontal array, and the reverse was true for English speakers). Another study showed that the extent to which Mandarin-English bilinguals think about time vertically is related to how old they were when they first began to learn English. In another experiment native English speakers were taught to talk about time using vertical spatial terms in a way similar to Mandarin. On a subsequent test, this group of English speakers showed the same bias to think about time vertically as was observed with Mandarin speakers. It is concluded that (1) language is a powerful tool in shaping thought about abstract domains and (2) one's native language plays an important role in shaping habitual thought (e.g., how one tends to think about time) but does not entirely determine one's thinking in the strong Whorfian sense.     

How linguistic and cultural forces shape conceptions of time: English and Mandarin time in 3D

In this paper we examine how English and Mandarin speakers think about time, and we test how the patterns of thinking in the two groups relate to patterns in linguistic and cultural experience. In Mandarin, vertical spatial metaphors are used more frequently to talk about time than they are in English; English relies primarily on horizontal terms. We present results from two tasks comparing English and Mandarin speakers' temporal reasoning. The tasks measure how people spatialize time in three-dimensional space, including the sagittal (front/back), transverse (left/right), and vertical (up/down) axes. Results of Experiment 1 show that people automatically create spatial representations in the course of temporal reasoning, and these implicit spatializations differ in accordance with patterns in language, even in a non-linguistic task. Both groups showed evidence of a left-to-right representation of time, in accordance with writing direction, but only Mandarin speakers showed a vertical top-to-bottom pattern for time (congruent with vertical spatiotemporal metaphors in Mandarin). Results of Experiment 2 confirm and extend these findings, showing that bilinguals' representations of time depend on both long-term and proximal aspects of language experience. Participants who were more proficient in Mandarin were more likely to arrange time vertically (an effect of previous language experience). Further, bilinguals were more likely to arrange time vertically when they were tested in Mandarin than when they were tested in English (an effect of immediate linguistic context).     

A monolingual mind can have two time lines: Exploring space-time mappings in Mandarin monolinguals

Can a mind accommodate two time lines? Miles, Tan, Noble, Lumsden and Macrae (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review 18, 598–604, 2011) shows that Mandarin-English bilinguals have both a horizontal space-time mapping consistent with linguistic conventions within English and a vertical representation of time commensurate with Mandarin. However, the present study, via two experiments, demonstrates that Mandarin monolinguals possess two mental time lines, i.e., one horizontal and one vertical line. This study concludes that a Mandarin speaker has two mental time lines not because he/she has acquired L2 English, but because there are both horizontal and vertical expressions in Mandarin spatiotemporal metaphors. Specifically, this study highlights the fact that a horizontal time line does exist in a Mandarin speaker’s cognition, even if he/she is a Mandarin monolingual instead of a ME bilingual. Taken together, the evidence in hand is far from sufficient to support Miles et al.’s (2011) conclusion that ME bilinguals’ horizontal concept of time is manipulated by English. Implications for theoretical issues concerning the language-thought relationship in general and the effect of bilingualism on cognition in particular are discussed.     

汉语背景下横纵轴上的心理时间线

采用反应区分范式, 以表示过去和未来的时间词为刺激, 对汉语背景下横、纵两轴上的时间表征情况进行了探讨。结果发现, (1)横、纵轴方向上都出现了STEARC效应; (2)右对角线方向上, 出现了服从横轴的减弱的STEARC效应, 且STEARC效应值呈正态分布。以上结果表明, 汉语背景下既存在从左向右的心理时间线, 也存在从上到下的心理时间线, 两种时间表征同时存在, 且横轴表征倾向于占优势。     

The bilingual advantage in novel word learning

The present study examined whether bilingualism facilitates acquisition of novel words in adults with different language histories. Word-learning performance was tested in monolingual English speakers, early English—Spanish bilinguals, and early English—Mandarin bilinguals. Novel words were phonologically unfamiliar to all participants, and they were acquired in association with their English translations. At testing, both bilingual groups outperformed the monolingual group. These findings indicate that bilingualism facilitates word-learning performance in adults, and they suggest a general bilingual advantage for novel word learning.     

语言理解转换中非目标语言影响目标语言的时间进程

运用跨语言即时启动和延时启动范式,要求被试完成生物属性的语义判断任务,研究语言理解转换中非目标语言影响目标语言语义理解的时间进程。实验1非目标语言为英文,目标语言为中文,结果表明,无论是即时启动(t = -0.423, p = 0.676),还是延时启动(t = -0.82, p = 0.419),语义相关组与语义无关组都无显著差异。实验2非目标语言为中文,目标语言为英文,结果表明,在即时启动条件下,语义相关组显著快于语义无关组(t = -3.05, p = 0.006),但延时条件下语义相关组与语义无关组无显著差异(t = -0.63, p = 0.536)。综合两个实验结果表明,晚期熟练双语者在双语语言理解转换过程中语义的即时启动影响存在不对称性,语义相关的非目标语言中文对目标语言英文语义理解起促进作用;但是语义启动效应没有得到延时体现。     

Language, thought, and real nouns

We test the claim that acquiring a mass-count language, like English, causes speakers to think differently about entities in the world, relative to speakers of classifier languages like Japanese. We use three tasks to assess this claim: object-substance rating, quantity judgment, and word extension. Using the first two tasks, we present evidence that learning mass-count syntax has little effect on the interpretation of familiar nouns between Japanese and English, and that speakers of these languages do not divide up referents differently along an individuation continuum, as claimed in some previous reports [Gentner, D., & Boroditsky, L. (2001). Individuation, relativity, and early word learning. In M. Bowerman, & S. Levinson (Eds.), Language acquisition and conceptual development (pp. 215-256). Cambridge University Press]. Instead, we argue that previous cross-linguistic differences [Imai, M., & Gentner, D. (1997). A cross-linguistic study of early word meaning: Universal ontology and linguistic influence. Cognition, 62, 169-200] are attributable to “lexical statistics” [Gleitman, L., & Papafragou, A. (2005). Language and thought. In K. Holyoak, & R. Morrison (Eds.), Cambridge handbook of thinking and reasoning (pp. 633-661). Cambridge University Press]. Speakers of English are more likely to think that a novel ambiguous expression like “the blicket” refers to a kind of object (relative to speakers of Japanese) because speakers of English are likely to assume that “blicket” is a count noun rather than a mass noun, based on the relative frequency of each kind of word in English. This is confirmed by testing Mandarin-English bilinguals with a word extension task. We find that bilinguals tested in English with mass-count ambiguous syntax extend novel words like English monolinguals (and assume that a word like “blicket” refers to a kind of object). In contrast, bilinguals tested in Mandarin are significantly more likely to extend novel words by material. Thus, online lexical statistics, rather than non-linguistic thought, mediate cross-linguistic differences in word extension. We suggest that speakers of Mandarin, English, and Japanese draw on a universal set of lexical meanings, and that mass-count syntax allows speakers of English to select among these meanings.     

Language context guides memory content

The relationship between language and memory was examined by testing accessibility of general knowledge across two languages in bilinguals. Mandarin-English speakers were asked questions such as “name a statue of someone standing with a raised arm while looking into the distance” and were more likely to name the Statue of Liberty when asked in English and the Statue of Mao when asked in Mandarin. Multivalent information (i.e., multiple possible answers to a question) and bivalent information (i.e., two possible answers to a question) were more susceptible to language dependency than univalent information (i.e., one possible answer to a question). Accuracy of retrieval showed language-dependent memory effects in both languages, while speed of retrieval showed language-dependent memory effects only in bilinguals’ more proficient language. These findings suggest that memory and language are tightly connected and that linguistic context at the time of learning may become integrated into memory content.     

Listeners feel the beat: Entrainment to English and French speech rhythms

Can listeners entrain to speech rhythms? Monolingual speakers of English and French and balanced English–French bilinguals tapped along with the beat they perceived in sentences spoken in a stress-timed language, English, and a syllable-timed language, French. All groups of participants tapped more regularly to English than to French utterances. Tapping performance was also influenced by the participants’ native language: English-speaking participants and bilinguals tapped more regularly and at higher metrical levels than did French-speaking participants, suggesting that long-term linguistic experience with a stress-timed language can differentiate speakers’ entrainment to speech rhythm.