个体主义/集体主义的“东西”与“南北”差异

东西方个体主义/集体主义差异主要受“历史因素”影响,如经济发展不平衡与传统文化、宗教制度等文化遗产差异;而南北方差异主要受“地理因素”影响,如不同的气候条件、生存方式以及传染病流行程度等。在概述影响个体主义/集体主义的因素及其相关理论基础上,借鉴年鉴学派观点将主要影响因素归为短、中与长三个时段,探讨各时段因素在不同尺度文化比较中的解释力,并提出两点展望：（1）结合短时段与长时段因素考察多元测量方法结果的一致性;（2）文化变迁研究除主要关注短时段因素的影响外,还应关注长时段因素。     

“集体主义—个体主义”的差异:来自基因、大脑的证据

文章以\"集体主义—个体主义\"这一基本文化差异维度为基础,围绕文化、基因和大脑之间的关系,介绍了国内外最新研究进展。研究显示当人类执行各种文化任务时,那些为人类生存提供有力帮助的基因会被选择和保留下来;在自我表征,注意和知觉,决策、情绪和意向推断等心理状态或过程上的\"集体主义—个体主义\"文化差异都可追溯到脑功能的差异。研究者先后提出社会脑假设、文化—基因协同进化论、神经—文化交互作用模型等理论来解释基因、文化与大脑交互作用的现象。文章分析了当前研究中存在的问题,并对未来的研究进行了展望。     

集体主义-个体主义文化视角下工作-家庭关系差异分析

工作-家庭关系研究是组织与管理心理学中研究的热点议题,社会文化因素是工作-家庭关系研究中的重要影响因素。本文在分析已有相关文献的基础之上,总结发现:个体主义文化下的员工工作和家庭之间的关系对等并且领域之间界限明晰,而集体主义文化下个体的工作-家庭之间的关系并非完全对等,且员工的工作和家庭之间存在更多联结。如何在现有的工作-家庭关系研究的基础上明晰适合我国文化背景的研究理论以及挖掘能够体现我国工作-家庭关系特征的研究主题是今后研究的方向与任务。     

匹配对创造性的影响: 集体主义的调节作用

以305名大学生为研究对象, 检验创造性氛围的供给-期望匹配、个人创造性能力的要求-能力匹配与个人创造性的关系, 考察集体主义价值观对这种关系的影响。结果显示供给-期望匹配中实际创造性氛围、要求-能力匹配中的实际创造性能力对个人创造性有显著作用。对于高集体主义价值观的个人, 环境因素(实际创造性氛围和要求创造性能力)对他们创造性影响作用更为显著, 展现出集体主义价值观对创造性的间接积极作用。     

自我对跨期决策的影响——基于个人-集体主义文化视角

跨期决策是指发生在不同时期的收益和成本的权衡决策。已有研究发现, 决策者的自我意识对跨期决策有着重要影响, 个人?集体主义文化在自我形成中起着重要作用, 但当文化因素被纳入自我对跨期决策影响的研究中时, 三者间的关系显得模糊不清。为了从已有文献中厘清三者间的理论关系, 我们基于个人?集体主义文化视角, 综述了自我对跨期决策影响的相关研究：介绍了跨期决策的相关概念及理论, 详细阐述了跨期决策中的两种自我理论(多重自我模型和自我连续性模型), 探讨了个人?集体主义文化对自我的影响, 并简要介绍了个人主义与集体主义文化下人们的跨期决策偏好差异及其心理机制。最后, 分别从研究内容、研究方法与实际应用三个方面, 提出了将个人?集体主义文化这一因素纳入自我对跨期决策影响过程、系统地考虑三者间关系的研究构想, 以期为未来研究提供新的思路, 深化人们对跨期决策机制的理解。     

文化模式及其对心理与行为的影响

文化可分为集体主义文化和个体主义文化两种模式。集体主义文化培育出集体中心的人格倾向,个体主义文化培育出个体中心的人格倾向。这两种人格倾向具有不同的自我概念,并进而对认知、学习、情绪和动机等产生影响。由此得出的结论是：心理学的研究成果具有文化的局限性,没有所谓的“放之四海而皆准”的心理和行为定律。     

集体主义/个人主义对道德判断的影响：基于CNI模型的研究

采用道德困境判断的CNI(Consequence, Norm, Inaction)模型,通过两个研究考察集体主义/个人主义对道德困境判断影响。研究1考察个体的集体主义/个人主义倾向对道德判断的影响,结果显示集体主义倾向的个体在道德困境判断中表现出更强的对道德规范的敏感性和总体的不行动偏好,因而作出更少的功利主义道德判断。研究2探讨集体主义/个人主义自我构念的启动对道德判断的影响,研究发现,与启动个人主义自我构念的个体相比,启动集体主义自我构念的个体对道德规范更敏感,因而作出更少的功利主义道德判断。整个研究表明,集体主义/个人主义文化主要通过影响个体对道德规范的敏感性和自身的行动偏好来影响道德困境判断,但在对自身行动偏好的影响上,集体主义/个人主义倾向与启动的集体主义/个人主义自我构念存在差异。     

委屈可以求全吗?自我表现视角下职场排斥对个体绩效的影响机制

有关职场排斥对员工绩效的影响结果, 已有研究存在不一致的研究结论, 表明该领域还存在潜藏的作用机制有待深入发掘。为此, 基于自我表现理论, 本文构建并检验了一个有条件的间接作用模型, 探讨遭受职场排斥的个体如何以及何时可能获得更高的绩效评价。基于一个情景实验和一个多时点、上下级配对的问卷调查, 研究结果支持了理论假设：职场排斥会激发个体表面顺从的应对策略, 并且这种应对趋向对高集体主义倾向的员工更为明显; 而在领导的集体主义倾向较高的情况下, 高表面顺从的下属能获得更高的绩效评价; 当且仅当下属和领导的集体主义倾向都较高时, 职场排斥通过表面顺从对绩效评价产生正向影响。     

联合Simon效应:现状、影响因素与理论解释

联合Simon效应是一种空间刺激–反应相容性效应,它出现在当两个参与者完成Simon任务的互补成分时。该效应被认为是反映自我–他人整合程度的一个有效指标。影响此现象的因素主要包括社会和非社会因素。社会促进理论、共同表征理论、空间反应编码理论和参照编码理论对该效应作出了解释。未来关于联合Simon效应的研究需深入探讨其影响因素以及脑机制,并进一步完善理论解释。     

作为效应的象征性与利益性影响因素:后悔理论的经济心理学分析

在许多有关后悔的研究中,作为效应是一个研究的热点.一些研究结果发现面对坏结果,作为之后产生的后悔程度大于不作为(Kahneman & Tversky, 1982; Landman, 1987).但是以往的研究很少考虑到具体的情境因素.本研究考察被试在象征性和利益性的情境中的行为选择以及后悔程度是否存在着差异.结果发现在象征性的情境中,被试倾向于选择作为(65.6%),而在利益性的情境中,被试则倾向于选择不作为(72.0%, χ2= 36.230, p= .000).由此可见,作为效应的产生具有一定的情境性.     

Social values priorities and orientation towards individualism and collectivism of Greek university students

The study aimed to explore the value priorities of Greek young adults and their orientation towards individualism and collectivism and to investigate for possible relationships between value types and individualism and collectivism. Greek undergraduate students (n = 484) completed the Social Values Survey, the Auckland’s Individualism and Collectivism Scale and a form of demographic information. Benevolence, self-direction and hedonism were found to be the most highly rated value types for both males and females. In the case of individualism and collectivism participants scored higher on collectivism. Males and science and technology students scored higher on value types regarding openness to change and self-enhancement. Females and social and humanities students scored higher on conservation and self-transcendence value types. Religiosity was associated to collectivism and to value types regarding conservation and self-transcendence. Regression analysis revealed a direct association between individualism and openness to change and self-enhancement. Collectivism was found to be associated with conservation and self-transcendence.     

Examination of the content of individualism/collectivism scales in cultural comparisons of the USA and Japan

The definitions of individualism/collectivism and the content of scale items used to assess them could explain the lack of cross-cultural differences reported in some research. Specifically, existing scales may not adequately assess expected cultural differences. In study 1 , a new scale was given in Japan and the USA. Three factors were identified in both cultures. Japanese scored higher on the others focus factor but scored lower on the helping others factor than the US Americans. In study 2 , a forced choice version replicated results in study 1 . In studies 3 and 4 , the factor structure and cultural differences were replicated and the convergent and the divergent validities of the scale were examined. Results indicate that Japanese may be more others oriented depending on the item content.     

Measuring individualism and collectivism: The importance of considering differential components,reference groups,and measurement invariance

A new instrument of individualism and collectivism (I/C) was developed and three key issues in I/C measurement were addressed: differentiating components of I/C, understanding the impact of reference groups, and testing of measurement invariance. Three components of I/C were assessed in China and the U.S.: independence, competitiveness, and uniqueness for individualism; considering of one’s decisions on others, sharing of positive outcomes, and sharing of negative outcomes for collectivism. Collectivism was measured with respect to parents, friends, and general others. Results indicate that Chinese participants are less unique but more independent and competitive than their counterparts in the U.S. The expected cultural difference is found for parent collectivism across all three components and for sharing negative outcome with respect to all three reference groups. These results suggest that individualism is a multidimensional construct, whereas the dimensionality of collectivism appears to be a function of social distance. Measurement invariance was tested at configural, factor loading, and intercept levels for all components of I/C.     

Duality of independence and interdependence: An adaptationist perspective

We propose a new framework for understanding cultural differences in self‐construal by noting the duality of this construct. Based on the analysis of the adaptive roles of self‐construal, we predicted that a US–Japan difference in self‐construal exists in the contrast between self‐expression and rejection avoidance. We confirmed these predictions using newly constructed self‐construal scales. Compared to Japanese respondents, American respondents were higher on self‐expression and lower on rejection avoidance. Our findings regarding the contrast between distinctiveness of the self and harmony seeking, which are traditionally discussed as the core features of independence and interdependence, did not support the standard cultural psychological view. The two groups of respondents did not differ on distinctiveness of the self and the American respondents were higher on harmony seeking than were Japanese respondents.     

中国澳大利亚4～5岁幼儿人格特征的跨文化研究

该研究的目的是考察不同文化特质对幼儿人格形成的影响。使用幼儿人格发展教师评定问卷,以集体主义/个人主义理论范式对中澳4~5岁幼儿人格特征形成进行跨文化研究。结果表明中国幼儿具有集体主义人格倾向,澳大利亚幼儿具有个人主义人格倾向,幼儿人格形成受到文化特质的影响。     

Open society fosters satisfaction: explanation to why individualism associates with country level measures of satisfaction

ABSTRACT

Although the association between individualism and satisfaction in societies is well documented, the precise mechanism linking these two remained understudied so far. Here we coin and describe the specific facet of individualism responsible for the above association–the ‘open society’. Open societies foster four others-benefitting attitudes: tolerance, trust, civic engagement, and minimization of materialistic pressure. In the others-benefitting qualities of these four attitudes, this paper finds the mechanism promoting life satisfaction of societies. Further, when open society attitudes are controlled for, the most common facet of individualism (quantified by Hofstede) turns out to be a negative predictor of satisfaction in societies. At the individual level of analysis, the relation of endorsement of four open society attitudes with individual life satisfaction is almost absent. Thus, open society promotes the satisfaction of communities in a eusocial way only.     

The Satir Model and Cultural Sensitivity: A Hong Kong Reflection

This paper addresses cultural sensitivity in applying the Satir model in the Hong Kong Chinese cultural setting, focusing on congruent communication. The authors contend that Satir was sensitive to the demands of culture. Her focus on individuality, equality, and freedom responds aptly to the egalitarian individualist ethos of the United States. In Hong Kong the family is generally dominated by hierarchical collectivist values. Applying the Satir model as it is being practiced in the United States totally ignores prevailing cultural conditions. Following the spirit of Satir, the authors propose the adoption of an emic approach, drawing inspiration and resource from traditional Chinese culture and maintaining continuity with hierarchical collectivism while protecting individual quests for equality, freedom, and independence.     

Thinking about the self influences thinking in general: cognitive consequences of salient self-concept

Two studies support our hypothesis that connected and interdependent self-focus evokes a generally context-dependent cognitive mode (focused on object-context relations) and provide some evidence that separate and independent self-focus evokes a generally context-independent cognitive mode (focused on objects, independent of contexts). Consistent with our predictions, experimental manipulation of interdependent self-focus influences cognitive speed/accuracy (Experiment 1) and memory (Experiment 2). When primed self-focus is congruent with the perceptual task at hand, perceptual speed increases (as shown by a significant task by prime interaction effect) and when primed, interdependent self-focus improves memory for incidentally encoded contextual information. Further research to link primed and chronic self-focus effects is called for.     

Relationship of cultural values to counterproductive work behaviour: The mediating role of job stress

The purposes of this study were to investigate how cultural values are related to counterproductive work behaviour (CWB), and to examine whether individuals' job stress acts as a mediator between cultural types and CWB. Using an anonymous questionnaire survey, the sample was comprised of 440 employees working in government institutes and private sectors in Thailand. The results show that job stress not only has a direct relationship to CWB, but also partially mediates the relationship between cultural values and CWB. The strong mediating links were between horizontal collectivism and CWB and between vertical individualism and CWB.     

The Rationality of Dissensus: A Reply to Goodin

Robert Goodin claims that he has undermined my ``proof of theinevitability of rational consensus among all patient people of goodwill.' I did not intend my position as a proof of the inevitabilityof rational consensus, however, and, in fact, I insist on thereasonableness of dissensus in some cases. I welcome the opportunity,provoked by Goodin's interesting reflections, to clarify my position. Iproved with Carl Wagner that iterated weighted averaging converges towardconsensus under conditions of connectedness and constancy resulting fromthe positive weight that individuals give to each other. I allow, nevertheless,that individuals may rationally assign zero weight to each other in a waythat blocks convergence and yields dissensus. The assignment of zeroweight to others will be rational, for example, when the interests ormoral concerns of the individual would be co-opted as a result of givingpositive weight to others. The assignment of positive weight to othersrequires modification of one's position, however, for the refusal to modifyone's position is mathematically equivalent to assigning zero weight toothers. Dissent is rational to avoid being co-opted, but the cost ofdisensus may be the assignment of zero weight to others and theirrational reciprocation.