项目特异性加工和关系加工对非熟练中-英双语者跨语言错误记忆的影响

采用DRM范式进行跨语言错误记忆的研究较为鲜见, 而且得出了许多不同的结果, 关于错误记忆跨语言产生的理论解释也是各执己见。研究以非熟练中-英双语大学生为被试, 采用DRM范式对非熟练中-英双语者的跨语言错误记忆进行了研究。在2个实验中, 分别探讨了项目特异性加工和关系加工条件下, 语义激活的不同水平对跨语言错误记忆的影响。结果发现：1)非熟练中-英双语者也存在跨语言的错误记忆; 2)在项目特异性加工和关系加工条件下, 相同语言内与不同语言间发生关键诱词的错误再认的结果是不同的; 3)只在项目特异性加工条件下, 长词表比短词表会诱发更多的对关键诱词的错误再认。研究结果支持了激活-监测理论。     

负性情绪词错误再认的跨语言实验

根据词语情绪标准编制汉语双字词关联词表和英汉双语关联词表,考察DRM任务下的英汉双语者对负性情绪诱词产生的语言内、语言间关联性错误再认。结果表明：（1）汉语双字词语义关联下,情绪色彩的强度影响错误再认水平,负性诱词的错误再认率显著高于中性诱词;（2）英汉双语语义关联下,错误再认发生跨语言现象,汉语负性诱词的错误再认显著高于英语负性诱词与汉语中性诱词的错误再认;（3）汉语负性诱词的语言间关联性错误再认率显著增加, 语言类型、词表类型与情绪强度有显著交互作用。     

关联效应中对情绪诱词的错误再认的实验研究

采用DRM范式,考察了在汉字单字词语音关联和形声关联条件下对具有情绪色彩的关键诱词的错误再认情况,结果表明:(1)汉字中存在着语音和字形关联,但是语音关联下的对诱词的错误再认率很低。(2)语音关联、形声关联条件下,尽管学习阶段没有出现带有情绪色彩的词,被试仍然对情绪诱词都产生了显著的错误再认。(3)形声关联下对关键诱词的错误再认近于语音关联的两倍,可见概括性的强度影响错误记忆的大小。     

考试焦虑对错误记忆的影响

采用认知考试焦虑量表从550名高一学生中筛选出75名不同考试焦虑水平的学生,运用Deese-Roediger-McDermott范式(DRM范式)诱发错误记忆,考察考试焦虑对错误记忆的影响。结果显示:(1)DRM范式能有效诱发个体对未呈现的关键诱词产生错误记忆;(2)中等考试焦虑水平的学生产生的错误记忆最少;(3)高考试焦虑水平的学生在高唤醒情境下对关键诱词的再认错误率显著高于中、低唤醒情境下的个体。使学生保持中度考试焦虑能减少错误记忆,提高认知成绩。     

重复学习对错误记忆通道效应的影响

本研究采用DRM范式以80名大学生为被试对错误记忆的通道效应进行了研究.实验采用三因素混合设计,运用信号检测论等方法探讨了重复学习对不同通道错误再认的影响.结果发现:1)汉语词表具有与英文词表不同的通道效应,表现为视觉学习的错误再认高于听觉学习;2)重复学习对视觉学习与听觉学习的错误再认产生分离性影响,即重复学习降低了视觉学习的错误再认,却提高了听觉学习的错误再认;3)信号检测论的分析表明:听觉学习在重复学习后对关键诱词的错误再认的增加是听觉学习对要义信息日益增加的敏感性连同较为宽松的提取标准协同起作用的结果.     

合作学习情境下监控者监控发音任务中的定向遗忘效应

在以构建留学生的汉字语音库为共同目标的合作学习情境下,考察了合作学习中的监控者是否会表现出定向遗忘效应。实验一中,协助者朗读两字表的单字并接受定向遗忘或记忆字表中单字的指令;监控者监控发音的流畅性或准确性,并单独接受再认测验;实验二在协助者重新朗读单字的条件下监控者接受再认测验。结果发现:(1)实验一中,监控者只在深层监控发音准确性的任务时,再认成绩表现出定向遗忘效应,浅层监控发音流畅性的任务中未表现出定向遗忘效应;(2)实验二中在测验阶段复原学习情境后,深浅监控任务下的再认成绩虽存在显著差异,但定向遗忘效应也消失了。综合两个实验表明,合作学习情境下,非有意遗忘的监控者的定向遗忘效应与监控任务深度和学习情境复原与否存在密切联系。     

短时间延迟条件下错误记忆的遗忘

两个实验中,使用DRM范式考察了短时间延迟条件下错误记忆的遗忘效应。实验一发现对两种关键项目的错误再认均随着时间延迟（即时、半小时和1个小时）的增加而提高,而在将时间变量由实验一中的被试内设计变为实验二中的被试间设计后,发现对两种关键项目的错误再认随着时间而发生不同的变化,表现为对关键诱饵的错误再认保持稳定而对中关联词的错误再认依然有所提高。说明错误记忆很顽固,一旦产生便很难衰退,当消除了其他干扰因素的潜在影响后,即使是在很短暂的测验时间延迟条件下,它至少是保持稳定的,不会随着时间而发生减弱。此外还发现了关联性和测验情境与测验时间延迟之间的交互影响,表现为对关键诱饵的错误再认受测验时间延迟的影响较小,受测验情境的影响较大;而对中关联词的错误再认则受测验时间延迟的影响较大,受测验情境的影响较小     

提取抑制对错误记忆的影响

该研究探讨提取抑制能否减少错误记忆的发生.以自编的DRM词表为实验材料,实验1采用有意遗忘范式（有意抑制）,实验2采用部分线索效应范式（无意抑制）.实验1结果发现：关键诱饵在“记住”条件下的错误回忆成绩显著高于“遗忘”条件下的错误回忆成绩;学过项目在“记住”条件下的正确回忆成绩显著高于“遗忘”条件下的正确回忆成绩.实验2结果发现：关键诱饵在“无部分线索”条件下的错误回忆成绩显著高于“部分线索”条件下的错误回忆成绩;学过项目在“无部分线索”条件下的正确回忆成绩显著高于“部分线索”条件下的正确回忆成绩.研究结果提示：有意和无意两种提取抑制都可以降低错误记忆,结果支持基于激活与监测的双加工理论的观点.     

测验情境对错误记忆的影响

本研究采用DRM范式,通过两个实验考察测验情境对错误记忆的影响,结果发现：（1）在两个实验中均产生了错误记忆现象：实验一关键诱饵的错误再认率为M=0．514,SD=0233;实验二关键诱饵的总错误再认率M=0．510,SD=0．215：（2）学习词表的语义关联越大,错误再认率越低：实验一项目语义关联程度主效应显著,F（1,84）=6．145．MSE=0．312．P=0．015;实验二,F（1,84）=5．143,MSE=0．225,P=0．026;（3）关键诱饵的位置造成了不同的情境效应：实验一,关键诱饵出现在第一个位置和第二个位置之间错误再认率差异显著（P=0．024）;实验二,关键诱饵出现第二个位置和第三个位置之间的错误再认率边缘显著（P=0．052）。该研究揭示了情境对错误记忆的影响。     

要点表征与字词表征在错误再认中的作用

关键诱词是指在学习中没有出现的、跟所学单词有一定关联的词。学习者对关键诱词提取时错误再认率(即虚报率)较高,这被称之为错误再认现象。有人认为是要点表征导致了错误记忆,但也有人认为记忆中是字词表征起主要作用。本研究针对要点表征和字词表征对中学生英语单词学习中错误再认的影响进行了2×7的混合设计,分别考查了分类分组呈现单词和随机呈现单词对中学生英语单词再认的影响,同时考查了关键诱词的虚报率与学习次数的关系。发现:(1)学习分类分组呈现单词的被试,对关键诱词的虚报率明显高于学习随机呈现单词的被试,说明要点表征在错误再认中起着重要作用;(2)对关键诱词的虚报率与学习次数之间呈现倒V型的关系,说明在学习初始阶段,要点表征在错误再认中起主要作用;但在学习的后期,字词表征在再认中的作用占据了主要地位。     

Withdrawal of spatial overt attention following intentional forgetting: evidence from eye movements

Eye movements were measured to examine whether item-method directed forgetting involved a spatial overt attention shift. Experiment 1 showed that participants’ eyes were moved away from the study word following the forget and ignore cues, but not the remember cue. Experiment 2 revealed that the eyes were moved away from the area that covered by the study word even when the study word disappeared upon the presentation of the memory cue. Both the study word and memory cue were presented auditorily in Experiment 3. In all experiments, the to-be-remembered words were recalled better than both to-be-forgotten and to-be-ignored words. More importantly, mental effort, as indexed by the pupil size, increased following the remember, as compared with the forget and ignore cues. These findings are discussed in terms of controlling spatial overt attention after encoding to withdraw attention from irrelevant information and to allocate cognitive resources to relevant information for long-term retention.     

Knowing what to remember and forget: A developmental study of cue memory in intentional forgetting

These experiments are the first to investigate children’s encoding and use of information about a memory cue in Bjork’s (1972) intentional forgetting task. In Experiment 1, children in Grades 2, 4, and 6 and college students were given cues to either remember or forget after the presentation of each picture. Recall and recognition tests of pictures and cues followed. The procedure in Experiment 2 was identical to that in Experiment 1 except that the list of presentation pictures was altered for some children (Grades 3 and 4) and adolescents (Grades 8 and 9) so that remember and forget cues were associated with particular taxonomic categories. In Experiment 3, the testing component was modified so that children (Grades 2, 3, and 4) and college students were asked to recall only the cue associated with each picture. The results indicated that (1) children as young as second graders encode the cue associated with each picture, although to a lesser extent than do college students, (2) much improvement in intentional forgetting is still occurring during adolescence, (3) only adults adequately cluster their recall by cue, (4) associating remember and forget cues with items from different categories does not increase the differentiation between cues, and (5) eliminating picture recall and recognition has minimal effects on the magnitude of cue judgments. These results suggest that children’s difficulties on intentional forgetting tasks stem, at least in part, from their poorer encoding of information about whether an item should be remembered or forgotten.     

The effects of context in item-based directed forgetting: Evidence for “one-shot” context storage

The effects of context on item-based directed forgetting were assessed. Study words were presented against different background pictures and were followed by a cue to remember (R) or forget (F) the target item. The effects of incidental and intentional encoding of context on recognition of the study words were examined in Experiments 1 and 2. Recognition memory for the picture contexts was assessed in Experiments 3a and 3b. Recognition was greater for R-cued compared to F-cued targets, demonstrating an effect of directed forgetting. In contrast, no directed forgetting effect was seen for the background pictures. An effect of context-dependent recognition was seen in Experiments 1 and 2, such that the hit rate and the false-alarm rate were greater for items tested in an old compared to a novel context. An effect of context-dependent discrimination was also observed in Experiment 2 as the hit rate was greater for targets shown in their same old study context compared to a different old context. The effects of context and directed forgetting did not interact. The results are consistent with Malmberg and Shiffrin’s (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 31, 322–336, 2005) “one-shot” context storage hypothesis that assumes that a fixed amount of context is stored in the first 1 to 2 s of the presentation of the study item. The effects of context are independent of item-based directed forgetting because context is encoded prior to the R or F cue, and the differential processing of target information that gives rise to the directed forgetting effect occurs after the cue.     

负性情绪材料的定向遗忘及心理机制

采用项目法定向遗忘的研究范式,在两个实验中分别采用文字和图片材料考察了情绪性记忆定向遗忘的效果及其心理机制。实验中采用了中性和负性两种实验材料,设置了两种记忆指令出现时间（2秒后提示和5秒后提示）,相对于中性材料,被试更不容易忘记负性材料。记忆指令出现的时间只影响图片材料的定向遗忘。研究表明负性情绪会干扰定向遗忘,选择性编码理论可以解释情绪性文字材料的定向遗忘,而抑制理论更能解释情绪性图片材料的定向遗忘效应。     

情绪一致性对有意遗忘的影响

有意遗忘是强调遗忘的有意性和指向性。对负性情绪的有意遗忘有利于个体的身心健康。本研究采用单字范式,实验一以正性、负性和中性情绪词为材料,探讨了情绪材料对有意遗忘的影响。结果发现,三类词语均表现出了显著的有意遗忘效应;实验二在实验一的基础上加入了情绪状态,探讨了情绪状态和情绪材料对有意遗忘的影响,结果发现,在积极情绪状态下,被试更多地遗忘负性情绪词;在消极情绪状态下,被试更多地遗忘中性词。表明个体对情绪信息的有意遗忘既受信息的情绪性影响,又受个体情绪状态的影响。     

Hypermnesia: The role of multiple retrieval cues

We demonstrate that encoding multiple cues enhances hypermnesia. College students were presented with 36 (Experiment 1) or 60 (Experiments 2 and 3) sets of words and were asked to encode the sets under single- or multiple-cue conditions. In the single-cue conditions, each set consisted of a cue and a target. In the multiple-cue conditions, each set consisted of three cues and a target. Following the presentation of the word sets, the participants received either three cued recall tests (Experiments 1 and 2) or three free recall tests (Experiment 3). With this manipulation, we observed greater hypermnesia in the multiple-cue conditions than in the single-cue conditions. Furthermore, the greater hypermnesic recall resulted from increased reminiscence rather than reduced intertest forgetting. The present findings support the hypothesis that the availability of multiple retrieval cues plays an important role in hypermnesia.     

Costs and Benefits in Item-Method Directed Forgetting: Differential Effects of Encoding and Retrieval

This study examined how encoding and retrieval factors affected directed forgetting costs and benefits in an item-method procedure. Experiment 1 used a typical item-method procedure and revealed a levels-of-processing effect in overall recall. However, the deep encoding condition showed a smaller directed forgetting effect than the shallow encoding conditions. More importantly, “remember” (R) words were selectively rehearsed as indicated by greater recall from the primacy portion of the list and more apt to be recalled before “forget” (F) words. Experiment 2 showed that a deep encoding operation reduced directed forgetting costs and that directed forgetting benefits occurred only when R words were recalled before F words. These findings supported the hypotheses that encoding manipulation affected directed forgetting costs and that directed forgetting benefits were associated with output order bias. Results were discussed in terms of mechanisms that produce item-method directed forgetting.     

Directed forgetting of emotional words

Emotional material may induce processing limitations affecting memory performance. In the present study, the authors investigated how the emotional content of words influences the degree to which participants can be directed to forget them. In Experiment 1, the authors found that negative-valence words were recalled better when participants were told to forget them than when they were told to remember them. This effect was only obtained when a study-list of negative words was presented after the cue to remember or forget the first list. The effect was correlated with negative mood as assessed by the PANAS. Similar results were obtained in Experiment 2, in which the induction of negative arousal by a mild stressor abolished the directed forgetting of words when the following study list was comprised of negative words. These results support the idea that directed forgetting relies on cognitive control processes that may be disrupted by negative emotion.     

The role of forget-cue salience in list-method directed forgetting

Research suggests that manipulating the wording of the forget cue in list-method directed forgetting affects the magnitude of directed forgetting both in younger children (Aslan, Staudigl, Samenieh, & Bauml, in press) and in older adults (Sahakyan, Delaney, & Goodmon, 2008). This occurs when the forget cue overemphasises the importance of forgetting in the current context. The present experiment investigated whether de-emphasising forgetting affected the magnitude of list-method directed forgetting in college adults. Some participants received overt forget cues that explicitly instructed them to forget earlier studied items, whereas others received covert forget cues that implied forgetting by emphasising selective remembering (e.g., "you will only need to remember some of the items"). Results indicated equivalent directed forgetting for both types of cues. However, regardless of the type of cue received, participants who reported using specific forgetting strategies in response to the forget cue showed directed forgetting, whereas those that reported doing nothing did not show any effects. The results underscore that successful directed forgetting requires engagement of controlled processes.