Early child rearing in Japan: Cross-cultural and intra-cultural perspectives

Within the field of cross-cultural developmental psychology, examinations of parenting serve to focus attention on development in the proximal context of the family and the distal context of the culture. Even though Japan is economically in the mainstream of the industrialized Western world, there are many cultural differences between Japan and Western countries; these include differences in cultural values, beliefs about children, parental behaviours and differences in the children themselves. The focus of this special issue is observational studies of early child rearing in Japan; included are cross-cultural comparisons with the United States, Germany and France, as well as studies within Japan. The contexts of the observations reported in this special issue include homes, laboratory playrooms, and day care centres. With intra-cultural and cross-cultural perspectives, an updated view of Japanese child rearing in the early years is presented.     

行为的文化差异:几头大象还是一群蚂蚁?

本文综述了关于行为与文化之间关系的研究.综述分为如下几个部分:第一部分介绍了跨文化/文化心理学自20世纪中叶创立以来,在人类行为的共同性、差异性以及心理功能在多大程度上存在文化特异性的问题上的持续争论.第二部分探讨文化差异的魅力,论证为什么迄今的研究往往偏向于寻找行为的差异而不是跨文化的不变性.第三部分简要概述跨文化比较研究中的文化偏误、缺乏等价性等问题及其对数据解释的影响.第四部分重点阐述本文题目中的主题,即跨文化差异的心理组织.这部分内容对目前文化心理学研究中存在的倾向,即从宽泛的维度或笼统的心理功能角度来组织和解释行为差异提出了挑战.第五部分则通过跨文化心理学的历史回顾,以几个重要的传统研究领域为代表来具体说明这种过度泛化的倾向及近期的研究发展,其中也包括了中国研究人员贡献越来越大的文化神经科学领域.最后对跨文化心理学的前景与展望进行了讨论.     

Monocultural and cross-cultural indigenous approaches: The royal road to the development of a balanced global psychology

Comprehensive comparison and conceptual analysis of cross-cultural, cultural, and indigenous psychologies in terms of their aims and theoretical and methodological perspectives lead to the conclusion that the first two are special cases of the third. Two basic types of indigenous psychology are distinguished on the basis of conceptual analysis: monocultural indigenous psychologies (including monocultural cultural psychologies) and cross-cultural indigenous psychologies (including both cross-cultural psychology and cross-cultural cultural psychology). Corresponding to these two types of indigenous psychology are two basic ways to conduct indigenous research, namely, the monocultural indigenous approach and the cross-cultural indigenous approach. Both approaches require achievement of the condition of indigenous compatibility, which stresses the sufficient congruity of the researcher's theory, methods, and results with the studied psychological or behavioral phenomenon and/or its sociocultural context. Finally, several ways to integrate research findings obtained by the monocultural and cross-cultural indigenous approaches are delineated and discussed with respect to their function in creating an indigenously derived global psychology.     

CROSS-CULTURAL DIFFERENCES: INDIVIDUAL-LEVEL VS. CULTURE-LEVEL ANALYSIS

Two approaches to the interpretation of and theorizing about cross-cultural differences are identified. In the individual-level approach, cultural differences are assumed to be consistent with individual differences within each of the cultures included in the cross-cultural comparison. The use of antecedent variables to eliminate alternative explanations based on biases is reviewed and some problems noted. It is suggested that explicit theories be used to guide the selection of antecedent variables to minimize the impact of cultural biases. In the second approach, the culture-level approach, culture is the unit of analysis and there is no assumption regarding the correspondence between culture- and individual-level relationships. Two examples are given to illustrate the potential usefulness of this approach to developing concepts and theories that are very different from those derived from the individual-level approach. The problems of bias in this level of analysis are also discussed. Finally, it is argued that in cross-cultural psychology the individual-level approach dominates, but we should pay more attention to culture-level research. This approach may lead to the development of concepts and theories that are not likely to be produced by mono-cultural works.     

A majority world perspective on human development: Commemorating the achievements of Çiğdem Kağıtçıbaşı

This obituary draws attention to the contributions by Çi?dem Ka??tç?ba?? in the fields of developmental psychology and cross-cultural psychology. Three themes are mentioned: research on the value of children, early childhood enrichment programs, and conceptualization of the autonomous related self.     

品味:主动用心地感受积极体验

品味(savoring)是积极心理学中的一个重要概念,它主要指个体延长和增强积极体验的过程。本文在介绍Bryant和Veroff的品味理论基础上,结合最新研究进一步对品味的概念、结构、机制、测量进行系统论述,并探讨了品味和幸福感的关系以及提高品味能力的方法。除了需要在品味的神经生理机制、品味的毕生发展研究、品位的文化差异等一些研究领域继续努力外,品味的测量以及应用等问题也都值得未来研究注意。     

Children,childhood, and development in evolutionary perspective

We examine children, childhood, and development from an evolutionary perspective. We begin by reviewing major assumptions of evolutionary–developmental psychology, including the integration of “soft” developmental systems theory with ideas from mainstream evolutionary psychology. We then discuss the concept of adaptive developmental plasticity and describe the core evolutionary concept of developmental programming and some of its applications to human development, as instantiated in life history theory and the theory of differential susceptibility to environmental influence. We then discuss the concept of adaptation from an evolutionary–developmental perspective, including ontogenetic and deferred adaptations, and examine the development of some adaptations of infancy and childhood from the domains of folk psychology and folk physics. We conclude that evolutionary theory can serve as a metatheory for developmental science.     

跨文化领导模式在跨国创业不同阶段的效能转化研究

以管理心理学的领导理论为基础,采用访谈、问卷调查和统计分析等方法,探讨三种跨文化领导模式在跨国创业不同发展阶段的效能转化。主要结论有:(1)变革型领导模式、创业型领导模式和交易型领导模式在跨国创业不同阶段的作用效能存在显著差异;(2)交易型领导模式的效能在跨国创业的成长阶段相对最大,成熟阶段相对最小;(3)创业型领导模式的效能在跨国创业的扩张阶段相对最大,成熟阶段相对最小;(4)变革型领导模式的效能在跨国创业的成熟阶段相对最大,成长阶段相对最小。     

A cross-cultural analysis of the behavior of women and men: implications for the origins of sex differences

This article evaluates theories of the origins of sex differences in human behavior. It reviews the cross-cultural evidence on the behavior of women and men in nonindustrial societies, especially the activities that contribute to the sex-typed division of labor and patriarchy. To explain the cross-cultural findings, the authors consider social constructionism, evolutionary psychology, and their own biosocial theory. Supporting the biosocial analysis, sex differences derive from the interaction between the physical specialization of the sexes, especially female reproductive capacity, and the economic and social structural aspects of societies. This biosocial approach treats the psychological attributes of women and men as emergent given the evolved characteristics of the sexes, their developmental experiences, and their situated activity in society.     

Cross-cultural psychology: Some accomplishments and challenges

The development of cross-cultural psychology over the past 40 years is briefly reviewed. Cross-cultural psychologists have focused on differences between populations, explanations based on individualism-collectivism and reduction of explanations to the individual-level of analysis. Cultural variations have been incompletely sampled, with an excessive focus on North America and East Asia. However, the cross-cultural approach is compatible with the perspective of cultural psychologists because in both traditions there has been a focus both on mechanisms of cultural stability and of cultural change. Promising new developments are identified, including classifications of a broader range of cultures based on communication behaviors, contrasting ways of satisfying identity motives in individualistic and collectivist cultures, and the use of experimental cultural primes for theory testing within bicultural populations.     

The Nature (and Nurture?) of Plasticity in Early Human Development

ABSTRACT— The effect of early experience is a long-standing concern in developmental psychology. Gaining further insight into the nature of human plasticity is central to efforts to prevent problems in development from arising and promote positive functioning. Evolutionary reasoning suggests that children should vary in their susceptibility to environmental influences, including parenting. Evidence indicates that rather than some children, such as those with negatively emotional temperaments or certain genotypes, being simply more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative experiences, as commonly assumed, they may actually be more susceptible to both positive and negative experiences. In addition to raising questions about the nature of plasticity in human development, this article highlights unknowns regarding the role of nature and nurture in shaping individual differences in plasticity, including whether recent research linking maternal stress during pregnancy with child behavior problems illuminates a process whereby fetal programming shapes the child's susceptibility to postnatal environmental influences. Throughout this article, we raise concern about the potentially distorting influence that psychology's disproportionate focus on the adverse effect of negative experiences on developmental problems has on our understanding of human plasticity, and we propose that researchers should pay more attention to the positive side of the plasticity equation.     

Three approaches to the psychology of culture: Where do they come from? Where can they go?

Cultural psychology, cross-cultural psychology, and indigenous psychology are three approaches to the psychology of culture. The author begins by comparing the three approaches – conceptually, methodologically; and historically. She concludes that each approach has contributed knowledge of the "deep structure" of culture to the field of psychology. This "deep structure" consists of the framework of individualism and collectivism; particular cultures are therefore surface forms of one or the other of these basic cultural frameworks. Rather than being universal, classical social and developmental psychology are seen as reflecting a particular indigenous psychology. For the future, a truly universal psychology must offer a theoretical framework that encompasses alternative indigenous psychologies.     

Evolutionary developmental psychology: Current status and future directions

The field of developmental psychology is part of a continuum of disciplines, from cell biology to cultural anthropology, that are focused on understanding developing and potentially evolving phenotypes; the reciprocal interactions between genetics and experiences produce variation in developing phenotypes and this variation is the grist for evolutionary selection. The articles in this issue provide cutting edge and multidisciplinary analyses of developing and potentially evolving phenotypes in areas that are of central interest to developmental scientists, including mother–infant attachments, stress responses in children, social cognition, and life span development. The articles and other recent works signal the reemergence of developmental psychology as an evolutionarily informed, multidisciplinary field. In this view, it is not about nature versus nurture or biology versus psychology, it is about tackling difficult problems at multiple levels of analysis, each of which has something to contribute and none of which is sufficient in and of itself.     

QUELQUES OBSERVATIONS SUR LA PSYCHOLOGIE EN ALGERIE: UNE PERSPECTIVE TRANSCULTURELLE

In this article we would like to familiarize our Francophone colleagues with the Algerian sociocultural background as well as with some aspects of psychology in Algeria. This information should facilitate contacts between Francophone and Algerian psychologists in order to contribute to research in the area of cross-cultural psychology. There are three institutes of psychology and educational sciences in Algeria. Most psychologists hold degrees from French universities. Psychologists are not organized into an independent association, but they belong to ‘The Union of Algerian Sociologists and Economists’. Their research projects are concerned with problems specific to Algerian culture as well as with problems in general psychology. We believe that for cross-cultural research, the Algerian culture could provide different factors or greater extremes of factors than those found in the West. Factors related to certain behavior differ in Algeria from those found in the West. One important area of cross-cultural research is the adaptation and validation of tests of personality and intelligence.     

A century of Chinese developmental psychology

At the turn of last century, psychology, including developmental psychology, was introduced into China. Since then, developmental psychology has always been one of the main branches of Chinese psychology. This paper reviews the progress of Chinese developmental psychology in the last century, with special emphasis on its development during the recent 20 years. The paper consists of three sections. The first is a historical review. The 100 years' history of Chinese developmental psychology has been divided into three phases: first half of the 20th century; the period between 1950s and 1970s after the foundation of the People's Republic of China; and the period from the end of the 1970s up to the present. The authors briefly describe the initiation of Chinese developmental psychology, highlighting the research and related work in the field during the three phases. The second section of the paper introduces the research conducted by Chinese developmental psychologists during the last two decades in the following areas: cognitive development, language development, social development and socialization, the study of gifted children, cross‐cultural studies of child development, the study of only children, and the psychology of ageing. This section is the focus of the paper, because in this period, developmental psychology in China has progressed steadily on a sustained course and entered an unprecedented thriving period along with the State opening‐up policy and structural reformation. The last section is an appraisal of the past and prospects for the future. Here, the authors comment on the characteristics and achievements of Chinese developmental psychology in the 20th century and discuss future directions for its further development in terms of research scope and depth, research methods, indigenization, and application.     

Culture and career psychology: A social constructionist perspective

This paper reflects on the need to re-examine cultural and cross-cultural psychology with a view to re-invigorating them and placing them at the center of discourse in career psychology. One perspective that can be employed to achieve these goals is social constructionism in that it questions the centrality of post-positivism in cultural and cross-cultural career psychology and shifts the focus to people in relationships. Emphasis is placed on understanding relationships in culture and recognizing that cultures are neither static nor independent variables but central to and embedded in career psychology. Social constructionist perspectives on cross-cultural counseling in career psychology and the development of indigenous career psychologies are discussed.     

中国区域跨文化心理学理论探索与实证研究

中国区域跨文化心理学是以文化学、社会学、人类学、人文地理学、社会心理学、跨文化心理学等学科理论为基础, 比较研究中国城乡区域、地理区域、历史区域、行政区域、生态区域等文化区域居民的个体心理和群体心理共同性和差异性的学科。采用系列问卷, 在2004年和2009年先后三次对甘肃省河西、河东汉族为主的地级市属各个县市区城乡居民以及蒙拢、湘拢的跨省域居民进行抽样调查。结果表明, 区域文化同一性和差异性以及具体的生态环境、生活方式、经济发展、政治体制、社会结构、教育水平、风俗习惯、风土人情等差异, 是影响区域居民心理健康、性格特质、社会态度、刻板印象等心理机能的重要变量。今后研究将着力进行学科理论完善和省际、县际比较研究, 更好地运用田野工作等方法, 揭示区域文化与心理行为之间的相互关系和作用机制, 形成理论模型, 为建设和谐社会提供理论依据。     

中国城乡跨文化心理学刍议

城乡跨文化心理学的母体是跨文化心理学,它旨在探讨城乡两种亚文化背景中的社会结构、思想观念、生活准则、价值体系、行为方式、民俗习惯、神话传说、宗教信仰以及语言特点等方面的共同文化心理特质和文化心态差异,中国的城乡跨文化心理学着重揭示城乡两种文化背景下个体或群体社会心理的基本差别,并因此为心理学提供研究原则和方法方面的启示,进而为乡村城市化过程中各种问题的解决查明心理学上的依据。