Eating disorders in elite female distance runners: Effects of nationality and running environment

ObjectivesTo compare UK and Kenyan athletes and to examine the influence of nationality and involvement in elite distance running on the presence of eating disorders, eating disorder psychopathology and menstrual dysfunction, in young women.DesignIndependent groups, with nationality and running status as independent variables.MethodsElite female distance runners were identified based on their performances in track, road and cross-country events. Questionnaire packs were sent to UK athletes and Kenyan athletes were approached at race meetings or a training camp. In all, 82 UK and 75 Kenyan athletes participated (70% and 90% of those invited) along with 97 and 101 non-athlete, age-matched controls from the two countries. All participants completed the Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire (EDE-Q) and assessments of dieting, mental health, self-esteem and menstrual function.ResultsUK women had significantly higher levels of eating disorder psychopathology and more probable present and past eating disorders than enyan women. Overall, 19.5% of the UK runners had a probable present or past eating disorder, confirming the results of our earlier study (Hulley & Hill, 2001). Kenyan runners had the lowest proportion of probable cases compared with all other groups and the least eating disorder psychopathology. Athletic participation was associated with less regular menstrual periods, regardless of nationality.ConclusionThese findings confirm that participation in distance running at an elite level does not in itself predispose to an eating disorder. Eating disorder risk is better represented as a combination of cultural values, elite sporting environment and person variables.     

Ankle kinetics and plantarflexor morphology in older runners with different lifetime running exposures

Running promotes better cardiovascular health and has positive effects on the musculoskeletal system in older adults. However, older adults have lower ankle plantarflexor torques and positive powers during running, and exhibit changes in plantarflexor morphology than young adults. Since older runners who run as much as younger runners exhibit youthful ankle mechanical outputs, running exposure may preserve the locomotor factors that mediate running speed. The purpose of this study was to compare ankle mechanical output during running and plantarflexor morphological characteristics between older runners who have low or high lifetime running exposure. Ten older runners with low lifetime running exposure and nine older runners with high lifetime running exposure performed over-ground running trials at 3.0 m/s (±5%) while kinematic and ground reaction force (GRF) data were collected and used to compute joint angular kinetics. Right medial gastrocnemius morphological characteristics were assessed using ultrasonography at rest and during isometric contractions. Ankle torques, powers, and plantarflexor morphology were compared between groups. Older runners with different lifetime running exposures ran with similar ankle mechanical output (i.e. no effect of running exposure) (p > .05) and exhibited similar medial gastrocnemius morphology during isometric testing. The findings from this study demonstrate that lifetime running exposure does not appear to influence ankle mechanical output or plantarflexor morphology in middle-aged runners.     

Perceived reality of visually mediated hazards and beliefs about risk

The aim of the present paper was to explore whether beliefs about risk are affected by media content authenticity as perceived by the viewers. A total of 69 participants were shown either a fictional or a reality‐based film on nuclear power. They rated risk perception prior to and after the film as well as ten days later, reactions to the film experience, and items of the scale for Need for Cognition. Results showed that individuals high in need for cognition were more accurate in their judgment of the authenticity of films, but were as influenced in their risk perception as their counterparts. Nuclear risk ratings showed a significant and large increase immediately upon the film session, but had resumed pre‐film level when measured ten days later. The potential influence of perceived content authenticity on risk perception is discussed in light of increasingly transformed patterns of media consumption. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Television and beliefs about health care and medical treatment

A representative sample of London television viewers answered questions on their attitudes to the quality of medical care they might receive if hospitalized, on their beliefs about the scope for control over one’s health, on the Just World Scale, and on their experience of viewing each of three TV series dealing with health matters. One series is an anodyne soap opera, one a light-hearted talkshow, and the third is a powerful though cynical drama series. Viewing of the latter,The Nation’s Health, was negatively related to expectations of good treatment if hospitalized, a link that did not emerge with experience of the other two programs. Seen in greater detail, the ostensibly linear correlation appears more likely to be a U-shaped relationship with the heaviest viewers being resilient in confidence, unlike light viewers whose confidence may have been shaken enough to deter them from further viewing. The results are discussed as a parallel to the controversy between Gerbner et al. (1977) and Hirsch (1980).     

Improving comprehension and communication of risks about health

Many patients have severe difficulties grasping several numerical concepts that are related to their health, such as, for instance, the risk of suffering various diseases. Visual aids have been proposed as a promising method for enhancing risk communication and comprehension. In medical practice, however, not all patients benefit from visual aids. In a study conducted on a probabilistic, representative national sample in the United States, we identified a group of patients for whom visual aids are most useful: Those who have low numeracy but high graphical literacy skills. These patients have high scores in three abilities involved in graph comprehension: (1) the ability to read the data, (2) the ability to read the relations between the data, and (3) the ability to read beyond the data. Our results can have important implications for medical practice and for risk communication about health.     

Perceived facial adiposity conveys information about women's health

Although several prominent theories of human facial attractiveness propose that some facial characteristics convey information about people's health, empirical evidence for this claim is somewhat mixed. While most previous research into this issue has focused on facial characteristics such as symmetry, averageness, and sexual dimorphism, a recent study reported that ratings of facial adiposity (i.e., perceptions of fatness in the face) were positively correlated with indices of poor physical condition in a sample of young adults (i.e., reported past health problems and measures of cardiovascular fitness). These findings are noteworthy, since they suggest that perceived adiposity is a potentially important facial cue of health that has been overlooked by much of the previous work in this area. Here, we show that ratings of young adult women's facial adiposity are (1) better predicted by their body weight than by their body shape (Studies 1 and 2), (2) correlated with a composite measure of their physical and psychological condition (Study 2), and (3) negatively correlated with their trait (i.e., average) salivary progesterone levels (Study 3). Together, these findings present further evidence that perceived facial adiposity, or a correlate thereof, conveys potentially important information about women's actual health.     

Metacognitive processes in the self-regulation of performance in elite endurance runners

ObjectiveThis study sought to investigate the dynamics of attentional focus and cognitive control during endurance activity from a metacognitive perspective. The study also intended to examine the situational factors which may influence cognitive strategy use by elite endurance runners.DesignSemi-structured qualitative interviews were utilised.MethodTen elite-level endurance runners were interviewed to explore retrospectively their attentional focus and cognitive strategy use during endurance running.ResultsThe findings revealed that metacognitive strategies such as planning, monitoring, reviewing and evaluating, and metacognitive experiences were fundamental to cognitive control and cognitive strategy use in elite endurance runners. The findings also added to the array of active self-regulatory strategies previously reported in the literature.ConclusionsThese results suggest that metacognitive processes are central to effective cognitive control in elite endurance athletes during running. The findings allowed for the development of an integrative metacognitive framework, which incorporates dimensions of attentional focus. This model may better represent the processes which underpin cognitive control and determine cognitive strategy use in elite athletes during endurance running.     

Young and older adults' beliefs about effective ways to mitigate age-related memory decline

This study investigated whether young and older adults vary in their beliefs about the impact of various mitigating factors on age-related memory decline. Eighty young (ages 18-23) and 80 older (ages 60-82) participants reported their beliefs about their own memory abilities and the strategies that they use in their everyday lives to attempt to control their memory. Participants also reported their beliefs about memory change with age for hypothetical target individuals who were described as using (or not using) various means to mitigate memory decline. There were no age differences in personal beliefs about control over current or future memory ability. However, the two age groups differed in the types of strategies they used in their everyday life to control their memory. Young adults were more likely to use internal memory strategies, whereas older adults were more likely to focus on cognitive exercise and maintaining physical health as ways to optimize their memory ability. There were no age differences in rated memory change across the life span in hypothetical individuals. Both young and older adults perceived strategies related to improving physical and cognitive health as effective means of mitigating memory loss with age, whereas internal memory strategies were perceived as less effective means for controlling age-related memory decline.     

Perceived benefits of marathon running in males and females

The differences in both perceived benefits and attitudes toward running between male and female runners, and between runners who classified themselves as competitive runners (CR) or recreational runners (RR), was the focus of this study. Four-hundred and two runners completed the Ten-Minute Survey for Runners within two weeks of completing a marathon. RR, more so than CR, perceived greater benefits from running. However, CR expressed a more positive attitude toward running and its role in their lives than did RR. Men perceived running to be more beneficial to them than women. However, women, more so than men, felt running had a positive effect on self-image and their lives were richer because of running. Future research concerns on the effects of competition on the lives of women are explored.     

The effects of beliefs about smoking and health on smoking cessation

The purpose of this study was to examine whether beliefs of an American sample about smoking and health, as defined by cognitive orientation theory, would determine those smoking cessation program participants who would become abstainers and those who would not. Although the smoking cessation program was not designed to influence the specific kinds of beliefs studied, subscales measuring two of the four types of beliefs differentiated participants who would become abstainers from those who would not. Abstainers tended to have stronger goal beliefs about their desire to quit smoking, and stronger beliefs about the health-related implications of smoking. Participants' beliefs that they could resist an urge to smoke, which implied the use of coping skills, were more important in determining who would abstain from smoking than was their confidence that they could quit smoking, which implied the use of willpower.     

Latina college students' sexual health beliefs about human papillomavirus infection

To examine Latina college students' sexual health beliefs about human papillomavirus (HPV), 16 self-identified Latina college students from a large Midwestern university participated in three focus groups. The authors found that participants' knowledge of HPV and cervical cancer was extremely low. Women did not obtain Pap screenings consistently, nor did they use condoms in a consistent manner. They perceived that cultural norms that support silence about sexual topics hinder their knowledge acquisition about sexual issues. Participants also recognized that their insufficient knowledge could jeopardize their health and expressed a willingness to actively stop this intergenerational cycle of silence within their families. Findings highlight the importance of incorporating cultural considerations when designing research and educational programs with Latina college students.     

Inter-joint coordination patterns differ between younger and older runners

Older runners are at greater risk of certain running-related injuries. Previous work demonstrated that aging influences running biomechanics, and suggest a compensatory relation between changes in the proximal and distal joints. Previous comparisons of interjoint coordination strategies between young and older runners could potentially have missed relevant differences by averaging coordination measures across time.ObjectiveTo compare coordination strategies between male runners under the age of 30 to those over the age of 60.MethodsTwelve young (22 ± 3 yrs, 1.80 ± 0.07 m, 78.0 ± 12.1 kg) and 12 older (63 ± 3 yrs, 1.78 ± 0.06 m, 73.2 ± 15.8 kg) male runners ran at 3.35 m/s on an instrumented treadmill. Ankle frontal plane, tibial transverse plane, knee sagittal plane, and hip frontal plane motion were measured. Inter-joint coordination was calculated using a modified vector coding technique. Coordination patterns and variability time series were compared between groups throughout stance using ANOVA for circular data.ResultsAt the ankle, older runners use in-phase propulsion (inversion, tibia external rotation) pattern following midstance (46–47% stance) while young runners are still in an in-phase collapse pattern (eversion, tibia external rotation). In coordination of the knee and hip, older runners maintained an in-phase collapse pattern (knee flexion, hip adduction) approaching midstance (35–37% stance), while younger runners use an out of phase strategy (knee extension, hip adduction). In coordination of the ankle and hip in the frontal plane, older runners again maintained an in phase collapse pattern up to midstance (34–39% stance), while younger runners used an out of phase strategy (ankle inversion, hip adduction). Variability was similar between age groups.ConclusionOlder runners appear to display altered coordination patterns during mid-stance, which may indicate protective biomechanical adaptations. These changes may also have implications for performance in older runners.     

Religious involvement, beliefs about God, and the sense of mattering among older adults

Using data from a 2001–2002 sample of adults aged 65 and older living in the Washington, DC metropolitan area, we examine the associations among religious involvement (as measured by the frequency of attendance at religious services and praying), the belief in divine control, and the sense of mattering—a key component of the self-concept. We also assess the extent to which these patterns vary by gender, race, and education. Findings indicate indirect effects of religious attendance on mattering through divine control beliefs and the frequency of social contact. Praying increases mattering indirectly only through divine control beliefs. Moreover, divine control beliefs are more strongly associated with mattering among women, African Americans, and individuals with less education. We discuss the contribution of these findings for theory about the links between religious involvement, beliefs about God, and psychosocial resources, and the influence of core dimensions of social status and stratification.     

Perceived control and health

Perceived control (PC) is defined as thebelief that one can determine one’s own internal states and behavior, influence one’s environment, and/or bring about desired outcomes. Two important dimensions of PC are delineated: (1) whether the object of control is located in the past or the future and (2) whether the object of control is over outcome, behavior, or process. A variety of constructs and measures of PC (e.g., efficacy, attribution, and locus of control) are discussed in relation to these dimensions and selected studies are reviewed. The issues, controversies, and limits of the research on perceived control and health are addressed in terms of the antecedents and consequences of perceived control. Investigations should clearly conceptualize the object of perceived control, use measures that match the conceptualization, and when attempting to manipulate control, directly measure perceived control. The relation between PC and health outcomes is complex, and different aspects of PC may interact to affect health outcomes.     

Perceived stress and physiological dysregulation in older adults

We use a population-based representative sample of older Taiwanese to investigate links between respondents' perceived levels of stress and a broad set of biological measures. These biomarkers were collected at a single time (2000) and reflect sympathetic nervous system (SNS)-activity, hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA)-activity, immune function, cardiovascular function, and metabolic pathways. We model the relationship between perceived stress and (1) extreme values for each of 16 individual biological indicators; and (2) a measure of cumulative physiological dysregulation based on the full set of biomarkers. We consider two measures of perceived stress, one derived from the 2000 interview and the second based on data from three interviews (1996-2000). Age and sex-adjusted models reveal significant associations between measures of perceived stress and extreme values of cortisol, triglycerides, interleukin-6 (IL-6), dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEAS) and fasting glucose. Examined individually, numerous biomarkers, including those pertaining to blood pressure and obesity, are not significantly related to perceived stress. Jointly, however, the measure of cumulative physiological dysregulation is associated with both the level of perceived stress at a given time and to a longitudinal measure of perceived stress. Some results suggest that the relationship between level of perceived stress and physiological response is stronger for women than men.     

Perceived burdensomeness and suicide ideation in older adults

Older adults have the highest risk of death by suicide in the United States. Improving our understanding of the factors that lead to increased risk of suicide in older adults will greatly inform our ability to prevent suicide in this high-risk group. Two studies were conducted to test the effect of perceived burdensomeness, a component of the interpersonal-psychological theory of suicide (Joiner, 2005), on suicide ideation in older adults. Further, gender was examined as a moderator of this association to determine if perceived burdensomeness exerted a greater influence on suicide ideation in males. The results of these studies suggest that perceived burdensomeness accounts for significant variance in suicide ideation, even after predictors such as depressive symptoms, hopelessness, and functional impairment are controlled. Gender did not moderate the association. The implications of these findings for treatment of older adults with suicide ideation and elevated suicide risk are discussed.     

Perceived control and health

Perceived control (PC) is defined as thebelief that one can determine one’s own internal states and behavior, influence one’s environment, and/or bring about desired outcomes. Two important dimensions of PC are delineated: (1) whether the object of control is located in the past or the future and (2) whether the object of control is over outcome, behavior, or process. A variety of constructs and measures of PC (e.g., efficacy, attribution, and locus of control) are discussed in relation to these dimensions and selected studies are reviewed. The issues, controversies, and limits of the research on perceived control and health are addressed in terms of the antecedents and consequences of perceived control. Investigations should clearly conceptualize the object of perceived control, use measures that match the conceptualization, and when attempting to manipulate control, directly measure perceived control. The relation between PC and health outcomes is complex, and different aspects of PC may interact to affect health outcomes.     

The impact of beliefs about face recognition ability on memory retrieval processes in young and older adults

This study examined whether beliefs about face recognition ability differentially influence memory retrieval in older compared to young adults. Participants evaluated their ability to recognise faces and were also given information about their ability to perceive and recognise faces. The information was ostensibly based on an objective measure of their ability, but in actuality, participants had been randomly assigned the information they received (high ability, low ability or no information control). Following this information, face recognition accuracy for a set of previously studied faces was measured using a remember–know memory paradigm. Older adults rated their ability to recognise faces as poorer compared to young adults. Additionally, negative information about face recognition ability improved only older adults' ability to recognise a previously seen face. Older adults were also found to engage in more familiarity than item-specific processing than young adults, but information about their face recognition ability did not affect face processing style. The role that older adults' memory beliefs have in the meta-cognitive strategies they employ is discussed.     

Perceived life quality of older and younger tibetans

Tibetans have enjoyed a reputation for contentment and a jovial disposition. This study examines the extent to which this positive outlook on life persists despite their 25-year stay as refugees in India, and the transferability of this positive outlook to first-generation, Indian-born Tibetans. With this in mind, older Tibetan refugees (N = 45) and younger Tibetan refugees (N = 45) residing in Himachal Pradesh in India were administered the Life Quality Scale (Q.O.L.). As expected, younger Tibetan refugees shared significant characteristics on the Q.O.L. scale with older Tibetans. Similarities and differences in the outlook of the two age groups are examined.Portions of this paper were presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Intercultural Education, Training, and Research in Montreal in May 1987.The author wishes to thank Sherab Gyatso of Tibetans' Childrens Village, a school in Dharamsala, for his help in collecting the data.     

The effect of running speed on joint coupling coordination and its variability in recreational runners

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of speed on coordination and its variability in running gait using vector coding analysis. Lower extremity kinematic data were collected for thirteen recreational runners while running at three different speeds in random order: preferred speed, 15% faster and 15% lower than preferred speed. A dynamical systems approach, using vector coding and circular statistics, were used to quantify coordination and its variability for selected hip-knee and knee-ankle joint couplings. The influence of running speed was calculated from the continuous data sets of the running cycle, allowing for the identification of time percentages where differences existed. Results indicate that increases in running speed produced moderate alterations in the frequency of movement patterns which were not enough to alter classification of coordination. No effects of speed on coordination variability were observed. This study has demonstrated that coordination and coordination variability is generally stable in the range of ±15% around of preferred speed in recreational runners.