Low-income mothers' patterns of partnership instability and adolescents' socioemotional well-being

The present study investigated the association of family structure and maternal partnership instability patterns with adolescents' behavioral and emotional well-being among urban low-income families. Analyses employed data from the Three-City Study to track maternal partnerships over the youth's life span, linking longitudinal family structure and transition patterns to adolescent well-being (N = 2305). Families were classified into nine mutually exclusive longitudinal partnership groups based on current status at wave 3 (single, married, or cohabiting) and the longevity of that status: always (since adolescent's birth with no transitions), stable (lasting two years or more, preceded by transitions), or new (transpiring in the past 2 years). Adolescents in the always married group displayed less delinquency and externalizing problems, according to both youth and mother reports, than peers in always single-parent or newly married households. In contrast, youth in always cohabiting households had higher maternal ratings of internalizing problems and youth with newly cohabiting mothers reported higher psychological distress than peers in similar stability groups with single or married mothers. Overall, several potential explanatory processes for the family structure and stability patterns surfaced: married parent families reported less economic hardship, more family routines and father involvement, and less maternal psychological distress and parenting stress than their single and cohabiting counterparts. Policy implications of these findings are discussed.     

MOTHER, CHILD, AND FAMILY FACTORS RELATED TO EMPLOYMENT OF SINGLE MOTHERS WITH LBW PRESCHOOLERS

The purpose of this study was to identify maternal, child, and family factors related to the employment status and employment history of single mothers of low-birth-weight (LBW) and full-term preschoolers. A sample of 121 female-headed, single-parent families with 3-, 4-, and 5-year-old LBW and full-term children was recruited through admission records to three Level III neonatal intensive care units (NICUs) and birth records of two normal newborn nurseries. Results show that the birth of an LBW infant was not related to employment status, number of hours employed per week, or employment history for single mothers. Employed mothers had significantly more education and more positive attitudes toward employment. Controlling for other factors, never being married, and having more children, more federal income, and less positive employment attitudes were predictive of nonemployment. Both employed and nonemployed women expressed preference for employment.     

Maternal depression and parental distress among families in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project: Risk factors within the family setting

This study examined the influence of risk factors within the family environment (inadequate resources, insufficient caregiving support from child's father, higher family conflict) on maternal well being (depression and parental distress) using a longitudinal panel research design. Participants consisted of 2,040 low‐income mothers of young children enrolled in the Early Head Start (EHS) Research and Evaluation Project. Findings indicated that greater family resources at 14 months had a protective effect on maternal well‐being at 36 months, controlling for demographic variables and maternal well‐being at 14 months. Furthermore, the effect of family resources on maternal well‐being was moderated by father caregiving support, such that family resources were protective, particularly when father caregiving support was lower. Family conflict at 14 months was associated with lower maternal well‐being at 36 months, controlling for demographic variables and maternal well‐being at 14 months. Our findings suggest that low‐income mothers need the support and resources of programs such as EHS to overcome the hurdles and challenges of parenting in high‐risk settings. Implications for clinical practice and EHS are discussed.     

Co-occurring risk and protective factors and regulatory behavior of infants living in low-income homes

Early self-regulation is a foundation for lifelong wellness and can be shaped by the interplay among several vital exposures. In this study, we examined the emergence of reliable profiles based upon exposure to risk and protective factors in infancy, determined if sociodemographic resources predict profile membership, and determined if these profiles predict early regulatory behaviors in a sample of infants reared in low-income homes. Data were collected from a sample of primarily Black or White mother-infant dyads living in low-income homes in the Midwest (n = 222) during the infants’ first year of life (mean maternal age at enrollment: 26.29 years; range 18−43 years). Exposures included mother-infant interactions; father support; maternal depression, stress, and self-efficacy; home environment; food security; and breastfeeding duration. Sociodemographic resources included poverty status; economic hardship; maternal education, employment, and age; parental marital status; and infant race and sex. Infant regulatory behaviors were measured with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised Very Short Form effortful control subscale (mean age 11 months; range 8.5−14.3 months). Latent profile analysis was used to profile infants by risk and protective exposures. Regression was used to differentiate profiles by sociodemographic resources and to predict infant regulatory behavior from profiles. Three profiles emerged: low father support, good maternal mental health, and poor maternal mental health. A married mother, less economic hardship, and working mothers predicted infant exposure to good maternal mental health. Infant regulatory behavior was best when the infant was exposed to the good maternal mental health profile. Implications for future research are discussed.     

Caregiver perspectives of risk and protective factors influencing early childhood development in low-income,urban settings: A social ecological perspective

This qualitative study explored caregivers' perceptions of factors influencing early childhood development in low-income, urban South African settings, from a social ecological perspective. Individual interviews were conducted with 15 caregivers of 3–5-year-old children; a reflexive thematic analysis approach was adopted. In the family and home context, caregivers spoke about their role in developing, nurturing, providing, protecting and disciplining their children. Risks included low socioeconomic status, dysfunctional relationships and caregiver mental health; resources related to early learning and social support. In the preschool/school context, caregivers discussed the value of early learning, and priorities for selecting early childhood care and education settings. Community risks included violence and crime; resources mentioned were social support, community programmes and infrastructure. The social ecological model provides a holistic and contextually relevant perspective for understanding multiple factors (risks and protective factors) influencing early childhood development in low-income South African settings.     

CAREGIVING HISTORY AND PRENATAL DEPRESSIVE SYMPTOMS IN LOW-INCOME ADOLESCENT AND YOUNG ADULT WOMEN: MODERATING AND MEDIATING EFFECTS

Prenatal depressive symptoms have been linked to negative outcomes for mothers and children. Using attachment theory as a framework, this study examined developmental differences in the interpersonal context of prenatal depressive symptoms among adolescents (age 14 to 19 years; n = 352) and young adults (age 20 to 24 years; n = 348). Participants included low-income, single, predominantly African American and Latina women. Moderating and mediating factors were found in the relation between caregiving history (perceived unavailability and inconsistency of maternal and paternal figures during childhood) and depressive symptoms. For pregnant adolescents, maternal unavailability predicted depressive symptoms whereas maternal inconsistency did not. In contrast, for pregnant young women, only maternal inconsistency predicted depressive symptoms; and this association was mediated by perceptions of prenatal support. For both groups, paternal caregiving history had a small yet independent association with depressive symptoms. Results highlight the need to consider developmental differences in the interpersonal context of prenatal depressive symptoms in delivering mental health interventions to young women of color.     

African American, White and Latino Fathers’ Activities with their Sons and Daughters in Early Childhood

We examined the activities that low-income, ethnically diverse fathers of sons versus daughters engage in with their children in the preschool years. African American, Latino, and White fathers (N?=?426) from research sites across the United States, were interviewed about their caregiving, play, literacy, and visiting activities when their children were 2?years, 3?years, and preschool age. Fathers of boys engaged more frequently in physical play than fathers of girls, whereas fathers of girls engaged more frequently in literacy activities. Moreover, gendered patterns of father engagement were already evident at the 2-year assessment, suggesting that fathers channel their children toward gender-typed activities well before their children have a clear understanding of gender roles. Ethnic differences were also found in fathers’ activities with children, and child gender moderated ethnic patterns of behavior. For example, Black fathers of sons reported the highest levels of engagement in caregiving, play and visiting activities, and both Latino and African American fathers of sons engaged in more visiting activities compared to White fathers of sons. Fathers’ education and marital status were also associated with fathers’ activities. Married fathers and those with a high school diploma more frequently engaged in literacy activities than unmarried fathers without a diploma; moreover, although Latino fathers engaged less in caregiving activities than African American and White fathers, this difference attenuated after controlling for differences in fathers’ education. The activities children share with their fathers vary by child gender, race/ethnicity, and family circumstances and offer insight into early gendered experiences in the family.     

Moderators of the Relationship Between Maternal Substance Abuse Symptoms and Preschool Children’s Behavioral Outcomes

While maternal substance use problems increase the likelihood of behavior problems in children, child outcomes are varied, leading to interest in understanding additional family factors that contribute to the development of behavior problems in children impacted by maternal substance abuse. The purpose of this study is to examine harsh parenting and family conflict as potential moderators of the relationship between symptoms of maternal substance use problems and child externalizing behavior problems. The non-clinical sample for this study included 250 low-income parents whose preschool age children were enrolled in Head Start programs in a Southern state. This study utilized data collected during two home visits, an average of 10 months apart, with data on family functioning and maternal symptoms of substance use problems collected at the first time point and child externalizing behavior collected at the second time point. Over one-third of the children (38.1 %) had clinically elevated externalizing behavior scores. We used regression analysis to examine whether harsh parenting or family conflict moderated the relationship between maternal substance use symptoms and child externalizing behavior. In this community sample, we found that in the absence of family risks related to harsh parenting and family conflict, maternal symptoms of substance use problems did not have a significant impact on child externalizing behavior in preschool children. However, when high levels of family conflict or harsh parenting were present, symptoms of maternal substance use problems increased the risk of externalizing behavior problems in children.     

Maternal Factors Related to Parenting Practices,Developmental Expectations,and Perceptions of Child Behavior Problems

Parenting practices of a representative sample of 1,056 urban mothers with very young children were studied via the Parent Behavior Checklist (Fox, 1994) and the Behavior Screening Questionnaire (Richman & Graham, 1971). Potential determinants of parenting practices were also addressed, including maternal age, marital status, education level, number of children living at home, and family socioeconomic status. Less positive parenting practices concerning nurturing and discipline were found among mothers who were younger, had more than one child living at home, were single, had a lower income level, and had lower educational attainment. These mothers also tended to perceive their children as demonstrating more difficult behavior problems. However, the negative influence of some determinants of parenting practices, such as low income, was found to be moderated by the presence of other determinants, such as more education. The present results provide evidence that multiple determinants influence parenting practices among parents of young children.     

Prevalence and Predictors of Background Television Among Infants and Toddlers from Low-Income Homes

TV use could be detrimental to children’s development because it may displace enriching activities like shared reading and caregiver-child interaction or disrupt children’s interactions with the adults in their lives by distracting both parties. Some prior research has shown that demographic factors (maternal education, siblings) and maternal mental health (depression risk and parenting stress) may predict household TV, but findings are mixed. Household TV is defined here as whether or how much the TV is on in the home. In the current study, we examine the following research questions: (a) what is the prevalence of household TV (i.e., whether or how much the TV is on) in the homes of infants and toddlers in a sample of families from low-income homes? and (b) do demographic characteristics (i.e., maternal education level and presence of siblings in the home), and maternal mental health (i.e., depression risk and parenting stress) predict household TV (i.e., whether or how much the TV is on)? Mothers (N = 220) reported on their household TV, education level, siblings in the home, depression risk, and parenting stress when children were four to seven months of age and again at 15–19 months of age. Results showed a high level of household TV, especially during infancy. Furthermore, education level, but not siblings, depression risk, or parenting stress, was related to household TV during infancy and toddlerhood. These findings are discussed in relation to prior research and the potential for informing future interventions or education efforts.     

Empirically Derived Subtypes of Child Academic and Behavior Problems: Co-Occurrence and Distal Outcomes

The aim of this study was to identify classes of children at entry into first grade with different patterns of academic and behavior problems. A latent class analysis was conducted with a longitudinal community sample of 678 predominantly low-income African American children. Results identified multiple subclasses of children, including a class with co-occurring academic and behavior problems. Gender differences were found in relation to the number of identified classes and the characteristics of academic and behavior problems for children. Several of the identified classes, particularly the co-occurring academic and behavior problems subclass for both genders, predicted negative long-term outcomes in sixth grade, including academic failure, receipt of special education services, affiliation with deviant peers, suspension from school, and elevated risk for conduct problems. The finding that subclasses of academic and behavior problems predict negative long-term outcomes validates the importance of the identified classes and the need to target interventions for children presenting with the associated class characteristics. Implications for early identification, prevention, and intervention for children at risk for academic failure and disruptive behavior problems are discussed.     

Parent Involvement in School Conceptualizing Multiple Dimensions and Their Relations with Family and Demographic Risk Factors

Parent involvement (PI) in school is associated with more positive academic performance and social competence in children. However, there are inadequacies in current measures of PI and a need for a better understanding of predictors of PI. In this study, measures were obtained from a normative sample of 387 children in kindergarten and first grade from high-risk neighborhoods in 4 different sites. First, a confirmatory factor analysis of a theoretical factor model of PI identified 6 reliable multiple-reporter PI factors: Parent–Teacher Contact, Parent Involvement at School, Quality of Parent–Teacher Relationship, Teacher's Perception of the Parent, Parent Involvement at Home, and Parent Endorsement of School. Next, the relations among 3 specific family and demographic risk factors—parental education level, maternal depression, and single-parent status—and these 6 PI factors were examined using path analyses in structural equation modeling. Results indicated that the 3 risk factors were differentially associated with the 6 PI factors: Parental education was significantly associated with 4 PI outcomes, maternal depression was significantly associated with 5 PI outcomes, and single-parent status was significantly associated with 3 PI outcomes. No significant ethnic group differences between African American and Caucasian families were found in these relations.     

Family,friend, and neighbour child care providers and maternal well‐being in low‐income systems: An ecological social perspective

Integrating theory from the family ecological systems and social support literatures with findings from child care research, in this study we develop and test a model relating family, friend, and neighbour (FFN) child care provider characteristics to perceived child care quality (provider reports of caregiving behaviours, mother‐provider caregiving relationship) and maternal well‐being (work‐family conflict, depressive symptoms). Results from phone interviews with 187 FFN providers receiving public subsidies indicated that even after controlling for familial status or household income, caregiver perceptions of higher quality care were associated with higher education levels, greater attachment to child care as a job; and lower provider depressive symptoms. After controlling for familial status, data analysed from a subset of 51 mother‐provider pairs, indicated that mothers using care from providers who reported higher quality parent‐caregiver social relationships reported lower work‐family conflict and depressive symptoms. This study suggests mothers who have providers with whom they have good caregiving interactions may experience positive social support and psychological crossover dynamics associated with mother well‐being.     

Decomposing the social gradient in children’s vocabulary skills at 3 years of age: A mediation analysis using data from a large representative cohort study

Disparities in children’s expressive language by socio-economic status are evident early in childhood and impact children’s development and educational attainment. This study investigated the processes by which maternal education, as a powerful indicator for socio-economic status, affects early expressive language. A nationally representative cohort study of 8,062 children resident in the Republic of Ireland were assessed on the British Ability Scales (BAS) Naming Vocabulary Test at 36 months. A significant difference of almost six points was found between the mean vocabulary test scores of children whose mothers had completed the minimum level of educational attainment compared with children whose mothers had a degree-level qualification. Mediation analysis revealed that 78% of the difference was explained by mediating variables, with differences in household income, parental practice, and material resources accounting for most of the variation. The findings support interventions which redress gaps in maternal education, income, and caregiving.     

Success at Catching and Keeping Toddler's Attention: An Examination of Joint Attention Among Low-Income Mothers and Their 2-Year-Olds

Recent research suggests that competent caregiving by low-income parents may serve to buffer young children from some of the deleterious consequences of economic hardship. As one means of exploring competent caregiving in the context of poverty, this study examined the structuring of joint attention among 47 low-income mothers and their 24-month-old toddlers. Findings revealed that, on the whole, dyads spent approximately half of a 10-minute play period in bouts of collaborative joint attention. While mothers made social overtures, or bids, more frequently than children, children played a significant role in initiating bouts of joint attention. Highly engaged dyads generated significantly higher numbers of reciprocal maternal bids and fewer reciprocal child bids overall than did disengaged dyads. Sequential analyses suggested that reciprocal bids initiated by children were likely to lead to periods of collaborative joint attention among engaged dyads, but not among disengaged dyads. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Attachment in substance‐exposed toddlers: The role of caregiving and exposure

Prenatal substance exposure is linked to adverse outcomes in children. Some adverse outcomes may result from insecure attachment and low‐quality caregiving rather than from substance exposure. Little is known about the caregiving of polysubstance‐using mothers. To address this, low‐income mothers (n = 41) with their substance‐exposed 12‐month‐olds were compared with a nonexposed group case‐matched for other risk factors. Maternal sensitivity and involvement were analyzed from 2 hr of videotaped interaction. Attachment was assessed using the Attachment Q‐Set. Attachment security and quality of caregiving were quite low for both groups, with no significant differences. In addition, regression analyses revealed that quality of caregiving predicted attachment, but amount of alcohol and cocaine exposure did not. These results suggest that among toddlers with social risk, substance exposure may not predict insecure attachment. Previous research linking attachment to exposure may be better explained by low‐quality caregiving. Implications are that substance‐exposed children, and nonexposed children with comparable social risk, are likely to need intervention to enhance maternal sensitivity and involvement to improve psychiatric outcomes.     

Maternal and Paternal Perception of Child Vulnerability and Behaviour Problems in Very Preterm Born Children

Preterm born children have more behaviour problems than term born children. Perinatal risks, current child functioning, sociodemographic characteristics, parental psychological distress and parental perceptions of child vulnerability (PCV) have been shown to be risk factors for behaviour problems. However, the role of maternal and paternal PCV is unclear, as these have not been investigated as a risk factor for behaviour problems, with all other risk factors taken into account. Aim of this study is to investigate whether maternal and paternal PCV are independent risk factors for behaviour problems in very preterm (VP) and term born children. The present study is a single centre prospective cohort study. Preterm children (n = 104), born at <30 weeks' gestation and/or birth weight <1000 g, and term children (n = 95) were assessed at age 5. Results showed that risk factors for parent‐rated behaviour problems were low/middle parental education, VP birth, parental stress and, in VP children, maternal PCV. Risk factors for teacher‐rated behaviour problems were low/middle parental education, foreign parental country of birth, intrauterine growth restriction and objective child vulnerabilities. It can be concluded that maternal PCV is a risk factor for parent‐rated behaviour problems in VP children. When VP children are presented with behavioural problems, clinicians ought to be aware of the possibility that parents might still perceive their child as vulnerable. The neonatal history of the child, the way parents experienced that period, their perceptions of the child and possible consequences of these perceptions could be subjects for conversation during visits at follow‐up clinics. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

An Exploratory Study of Neglect and Emotional Abuse in Adolescents: Classifications of Caregiver Risk Factors

Recent research has advanced exploration of developmental stage and age-related distinctions in understanding the perpetration of child maltreatment. Using longitudinal data from the National Survey of Child and Adolescent Well-being I (NSCAW-I), this exploratory study investigated heterogeneity in caregiver risks in cases of both neglect and emotional abuse of adolescents (N = 511). Using MPlus software, a person-centered data analytic strategy–latent class analysis was performed to identify distinct classes of caregiver risk factors that were associated with the reports of maltreatment among adolescents. Subsequently exploring the distinct characteristics of the classes, we examined the related demographic characteristics, child welfare system variables (e.g., type of placement status; change in placement type between waves), and youth factors such as the presence of clinical range problem behaviors (Child Behavior Checklist). Results demonstrate four distinct classes of caregiver risk factors, with a nearly even split between those who have an absence of risk factors and those who have a whole host of risk determinants. Differences between the classes regarding the duration of time in out-of-home placements between Wave 1 and Wave 3 also emerged significant.     

Predictors of Parent-Reported Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder in Children Aged 6–7 years: A National Longitudinal Study

This study examined the prenatal, postnatal and demographic predictors of parent-reported attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in an Australian population-based sample. Participants were families participating in the Longitudinal Study of Australian Children. There were approximately even numbers of males (51%) and females (49%) in the sample. Predictors of parent-reported ADHD status at Wave 2 (children aged 6–7 years) which were measured at Wave 1 (children aged 4–5 years) included cigarette smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy (prenatal factors); maternal postnatal depression, intensive care at birth, birth weight, and gestation (postnatal factors); and child gender, primary caregiver education, income, family composition, and maternal age at childbirth (socio-demographic factors). We found that male gender, cigarette smoking during pregnancy, and maternal postnatal depression were the only significant predictors (at the 5% level) of ADHD in the adjusted analysis (N = 3,474). Our results are consistent with previous findings that male gender and cigarette smoking during pregnancy are risk factors for ADHD. In addition, we found that postnatal depression was predictive of parent-reported ADHD.     

Motives and Barriers for Physical Activity among Low-Income Black Single Mothers

Physical activity is associated with positive health outcomes, yet previous evidence suggests that single mothers, Black women, and those with low-income levels have low rates of physical activity. The purpose of the present study was to examine health status, as well as barriers and motives for physical activity, among low-income, Black single mothers from an intersectionality framework. Participants (n = 32) in this cross-sectional, mixed methods study completed questionnaires to assess physical activity, health status, stress, and barriers to physical activity and then participated in one of six focus groups to explore physical activity motives and barriers. Although participants reported many risk factors for disease including obesity, stress, and family disease history, most participants were not engaging in behaviors that would improve health such as regular leisure-time physical activity. Participants cited being a role model, stress relief, and weight loss as motives for physical activity that were connected to their social identities as low-income, Black single mothers. Chronic stress and stressors, responsibilities associated with single motherhood, and lack of social and community supports were described as barriers to physical activity. Future researchers and practitioners should consider these specific motives and barriers when designing interventions to increase physical activity among low-income, Black single mothers. We recommend that these programs focus on: promoting motives for physical activity that are meaningful and specific to this subpopulation of mothers, reducing stress, and enhancing affordable physical activity opportunities in the community for single mothers and their children.