TheP system: A scheme for organizing Pavlovian procedures

The present paper introduces theP system as a scheme for organizing Pavlovian procedures in an orderly and comprehensive manner. The system is defined by three temporal variables and three restrictions on their possible values. It can be used to define all standard temporal variables—namely, stimulus duration, interstimulus interval, trace interval, and intertrial interval—as well as variables C and T of scalar expectancy theory. The system also permits the definition of new independent variables through combinations of the basic temporal parameters. We exemplify this possibility by defining two ratios of temporal intervals. These ratios lead to a space where traditional Pavlovian arrangements (viz., simultaneous, forward-trace, forward-delay, backward) become points on a continuum, and optimal conditions across different experimental preparations become equivalent. Finally, the system can be used to define contingency variables such asp(US/CS),p(US/～CS), and the phi coefficient (φ). In this manner, an organization of different kinds of Pavlovian procedures is achieved on the basis of a single parametric scheme. Such an organization facilitates establishing procedural and theoretical relationships between temporal and contingency variables. The paper concludes with a discussion of certain limitations of the system and other related issues     

A comparison of ranking and rating procedures for value system measurement

Compared the validity and reliability of 2 value measurement techniques. 296 Ss (161 females and 135 males) in introductory psychology filled out the 2 measurement techniques and an attitude survey. The Rokeach Value Survey instructed Ss to separately rank 2 sets of 18 values in order of importance. A rating version of the Value Survey instructed Ss to rate the same 36 values from 1 to 99. 236 Sreturned 6 weeks later and again filled out both measurement techniques. Results of the multimethod factor analysis indicate very good convergent validity among the 4 measures of a given value (2 techniques × 2 sessions) and very good discriminant validity between measures of different values. Probably due to the ipsative nature of the ranking procedure, the test-retest reliabilities were higher for the ranked measurements than for the rated measurements. The construct validity of both measurement techniques, as determined by multiple regression and analysis of variance, were similar. Despite criticisms of ranking procedures, both the ranked and the rated versions were of equal reliability and validity.     

CAT: A tool for eliciting knowledge on how to perform procedures

Procedural tasks involve context-sensitive sequences of actions that are performed in pursuit of goals. Procedural knowledge specifies how to do something (e.g., repairing a car) but not how the physical system works (e.g., how the engine works). We have developed a computer program that elicits procedural knowledge from individuals with varying amounts of domain knowledge (ranging from novices to experts) and varying amounts of computer literacy. The tool is called CAT (cognitive analysis tool). CAT is an extension of a class of cognitive models known as GOMS, which stands for goals, operators, methods, and selection rules. The tool guides the user in articulating the goals (and subgoals) the user wants to accomplish, the operators (actions, steps) to accomplish each goal, the alternative methods of accomplishing goals, the conditions in which each method is applied, and exceptional circumstances when goals are suspended and restarted. CAT can be used on most IBMcompatible microcomputers.     

CONDUIT standards and procedures: A practical experience

Standards and procedures for the CONDUIT program are described.     

Response elimination: A comparison of four procedures

Four procedures for eliminating an operant response were compared within a multiple schedule. Response reduction was most rapid when reinforcement was provided for a specific alternative response. The decline in responding produced by extinction and differential reinforcement of other behavior was similar. Responding initially increased and then gradually decreased when reinforcers were delivered independently of responding at fixed times. Removal of reinforcement from the alternative-response and DRO procedures did not result in recovery of the target response. However, the shift from response-independent dilivery of reinforcers to extinction caused an initial increase in responding.     

Vibrotactile masking: A comparison of psychophysical procedures

The amounts of ipsilateral and contralateral masking obtained with a modified psychophysical procedure were compared for vibratory stimuli presented to different body loci. Results of a combined forced-choice localization task and a forced-choice detection task were similar to the results obtained in previous investigations which employed method of limits and two-alternative, temporal forced-choice procedures, respectively. Ipsilateral maskers produced similar amounts of masking in both the detection and localization tasks for fingertip and arm test sites. Contralateral maskers resulted in considerably more masking in the localization task than in the detection task for both fingertip and arm test sites. When large longitudinal distances were introduced between the test stimulus and masker, little masking was evident in either the localization or detection task. It was concluded that the differences in the amount of ipsilateral and contralateral masking obtained with different psychophysical procedures reflect different effects of a masker on the detectable attributes of a test stimulus. Implications of these results for the study of multiple tactile perception were discussed.     

A comparison of several procedures for eliminating behavior

The pecking response of pigeons was reinforced when a minimum period of time had elapsed since the last response (DRL schedule of food-reinforcement). Punishment, satiation, extinction, and stimulus change were employed separately to reduce responding. When the effects of the four procedures were compared, punishment was found capable of producing a more immediate, complete and long lasting response reduction than the others. Punishment had its maximum effect on the responses that were least relevant to reinforcement. The punishment reduced the frequency of the short inter-response times to a greater extent than did either extinction or satiation. In this way, punishment actually increased the efficiency of the DRL responding.     

The home point system: token reinforcement procedures for application by parents of children with behavior problems

Parent-child problems within the home are frequently reported to be instances in which children refuse to help with household chores, bicker among themselves, or engage in verbally inappropriate behavior toward their parents. The present study investigated the effects of a token reinforcement program administered by the parents in ameliorating these problems. Two sets of parents, with a total of five children between the ages of 5 and 10 yr, were taught to administer a token economy within their homes. The parents received instruction in specifying desired social and chore behaviors, communicated these behavioral goals to their children, recorded data on their occurrence, and managed a point system backed with reinforcers normally found in the home. The token reinforcement program was shown to have successfully modified 15 problem behaviors in Family 1 and six in Family 2. In addition, the parents rated all 21 behavior changes as significant improvements. These studies indicated that some cooperative parents need only a small amount of professional help to learn to manage their children's behavior problems with token reinforcement procedures.     

A comparison of procedures for programming noncontingent reinforcement schedules

We compared two methods for programming and thinning noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) schedules during the treatment of self-injurious behavior (SIB). The participants were 3 individuals who had been diagnosed with mental retardation. Results of functional analyses indicated that all participants' SIB was maintained by positive reinforcement (i.e., access to attention or food). Following baseline, the effects of two NCR schedule-thinning procedures were compared in multielement designs. One schedule (fixed increment) was initially set at fixed-time 10-s reinforcer deliveries and was also thinned according to fixed-time intervals. The other schedule (adjusting IRT) was initially determined by participants' baseline interresponse times (IRTs) for SIB and was thinned based on IRTs observed during subsequent treatment sessions. Results indicated that both schedules were effective in initially reducing SIB and in maintaining response suppression as the schedules were thinned.     

Utility of cognitive-behavioral procedures for social skills training with children: A critical review

Thirty-three studies that have used cognitive-behavioral social skills training procedures were critically reviewed. These studies were classified under four broad categories: (a) modeling, (b) coaching, (c) treatment packages, and (d) social problem solving. Seven criteria were used to critically evaluate these studies: (a) subject characteristics, (b) treatment specification, (c) out come measures, (d) statistical analyses, (e) experimental design, (f) generalization, and (g) cost effectiveness.     

A comparison of procedures for unpairing conditioned reflexive motivating operations

This study compared the effectiveness of two procedures to reduce behavior evoked by a reflexive conditioned motivating operation (CMO‐R). Task demands were shown to evoke escape‐maintained problem behavior for 4 students with disabilities. Alternative communication responses were taught as an appropriate method to request escape and this treatment combined with extinction for problem behavior led to decreases in problem behavior for all students. A beeping timer was then arranged to temporally precede the task demand to create a CMO‐R that evoked communication responses. When data showed that the sound of the timer was functioning as a CMO‐R, two methods to reduce behavior evoked by a CMO‐R—extinction unpairing and noncontingent unpairing—were evaluated. Results indicated that noncontingent unpairing was an effective method to reduce the evocative effects of the CMO‐R. Extinction produced unsystematic effects across participants. Results are discussed in terms of abolishing CMOs and the implications of CMOs.     

A table of d' for M-alternative odd-man-out forced-choice procedures.

There is a class of multiple-alternative forced-choice psychophysical procedures in which the subject is required to identify which one of a number of stimuli differs from the remaining stimuli, without having to consider the direction or sign of the difference. A table giving values of the discrimination index d' as a function of the proportion of correct responses in such odd-man-out procedures was generated by numerical simulation. The table covers experiments with 3 to 32 alternative stimuli.