Naming our concerns about neuroscience: a review of Bennett and Hacker's philosophical foundations of neuroscience

Bennett and Hacker use conceptual analysis to appraise the theoretical language of modern cognitive neuroscientists, and conclude that neuroscientific theory is largely dualistic despite the fact that neuroscientists equate mind with the operations of the brain. The central error of cognitive neuroscientists is to commit the mereological fallacy, the tendency to ascribe to the brain psychological concepts that only make sense when ascribed to whole animals. The authors review how the mereological fallacy is committed in theories of memory, perception, thinking, imagery, belief, consciousness, and other psychological processes studied by neuroscientists, and the consequences that fallacious reasoning have for our understanding of how the brain participates in cognition and behavior. Several behavior-analytic concepts may themselves be nonsense based on thorough conceptual analyses in which the criteria for sense and nonsense are found in the ways the concepts are used in ordinary language. Nevertheless, the authors' nondualistic approach and their consistent focus on behavioral criteria for the application of psychological concepts make Philosophical Foundations of Neuroscience an important contribution to cognitive neuroscience.     

Psychological Essentialism: A Review Of E. Margolis And S. Laurence (Eds.), Concepts: Core Readings.

Concepts: Core Readings (1999) is an edited volume of articles representing five major theories of concepts within cognitive psychology. Of the five, only the prototype theory can be interpreted in terms arising from a behavioral analysis. Two conceptual problems pervade nearly all of the papers in the volume. The first is an implicit commitment to essentialism; concepts are reified and are commonly discussed as though they have essential properties. Second, the theories suffer from a defective theory of verbal behavior. No distinction is made between verbal operants and words drawn from a hat.     

Conceptual approaches and issues

The experimental analysis of behavior has lagged far behind mainstream psychology, particularly cognitive psychology, in the study of complex behavior—remembering, thinking, imaging, problem solving, and the like. Yet it is the study of these kinds of behavior that will provide the greatest justification of our continued existence in the community of behavioral scientists. Focusing primarily on remembering as a complex performance, aspects of (1) radical behaviorism, (2) the methodology of the experimental analysis of behavior, and (3) the special contributions of B. F. Skinner are assessed as explicitly or implicitly discouraging the experimental treatment of such complex behavior. Although there are encouraging signs of advancement into the present domains of cognitive psychology, future success of the experimental analysis of behavior in this endeavor will require aggressive pursuit by investigators and more effective training of their students.     

Some reciprocal roles between behavior analysis and institutional economics in post-darwinian science

Behavior analysis and institutional economics are viewed as having common origins in the early 20th century effort to benefit from the conceptual revolution spurred by Darwin's synthesis. Institutional economics, initiated by Thorstein Veblen, appears to have failed to develop a progressive scientific technology, while behavior analysis has done so. It is suggested that institutional economics has been held back by lack of a synthesizing scientific mechanism that elucidates the relation between technological and ceremonial processes, the two cultural forces described by Veblen. The theory of institutional economist C. E. Ayres, built on Veblen's distinction, is used to clarify the concepts of technological and ceremonial processes for the reader. An analysis of the behavioral processes that might underlie the cultural processes described by Veblen/Ayres suggests that the experimental analysis of behavior has provided concepts that might function as a synthesizing mechanism for the social sciences and, in particular, institutional economics. The Veblen/Ayres dichotomy, now seen in terms of underlying behavioral processes, is used to examine the field of behavior analysis in terms of its origins, its relation to psychology and its current state. The paper concludes with a few practical suggestions as to how behavior analysts might work to enhance survival.     

Coping strategies for auditory hallucinations: A review

This article reviews the literature on the strategies which psychiatric patients spontaneously use in order to cope with their auditory hallucinations. The common strategies found between studies are described and these are grouped according to four categories: (i) social contact; (ii) sensory stimulation; (iii) physiological arousal; and (iv) cognitive strategies. An attempt is made to relate these strategies to the theoretical and experimental literature on auditory hallucinations and, finally, the role of the counselling psychologist in fostering the development of effective coping strategies is outlined.     

Interpretation of Scientific or Mathematical Concepts: Cognitive Issues and Instructional Implications

Scientific and mathematical concepts are significantly different from everyday concepts and are notoriously difficult to learn. It is shown that particular instances of such concepts can be identified or generated by different possible modes of concept interpretation. Some of these modes use formally explicit knowledge and thought processes; others rely on less formal case-based knowledge and more automatic recognition processes. The various modes differ in attainable precision, likely errors, and ease of use. A combination of such modes can be used to formulate an “ideal” model for interpreting scientific concepts both reliably and efficiently. Comparisons are made with the actual concept interpretations of expert scientists and novice students. The discussion elucidates some cognitive and metacognitive reasons why the learning of scientific or mathematical concepts is difficult. It also suggests instructional guidelines for teaching such concepts more effectively.     

Self-control revisited: Or why doesn't anyone actually read Skinner anymore?

Self-control continues to develop as a major source of explanatory concepts within cognitive behavior therapy. The recent history of self-control is reviewed, and three related areas of disagreement between radical behaviorists and cognitive behaviorists are discussed. The logical status of self-reinforcement, reciprocity, and private events is examined and evaluated. This review suggests that a radical behavioral approach continues to offer psychology the most effective program for the analysis of behavior.     

How much “effort” should be devoted to memory?

We focus on the issue of whether cognitive effort is causally related to memory. We begin with a discussion of the concept of cognitive effort as derived from capacity models of attention. We then suggest that the theoretical analysis of memory may involve concepts from different levels of psychological analysis, and we draw a distinction between concepts that represent boundary conditions and sufficient cause. When applied to memory phenomena, attentional concepts serve only as a boundary--or limiting--function in memory theory. In contrast, concepts that represent memorial processes serve as a sufficient cause function. In some instances, cognitive effort appears to have been used as a sufficient cause concept, resulting in some confusion. A review of the literature reveals a haphazard correlation between indexes of cognitive effort and of memory performance. Alternatively, the application of cognitive effort or capacity to the memory performance of certain populations (clinical, children, and elderly) illustrates a potentially more appropriate use of the concept.     

Toward a functional analysis of delusional speech and hallucinatory behavior

An approach to a functional analysis of delusional speech and hallucinatory behavior is described and discussed using concepts found in Goldiamond's (1975a and 1984) nonlinear contingency analysis and Skinner's Verbal Behavior (1957). This synthesis draws upon and concords with research from the animal laboratory, with the extensive experimental literatures on stimulus control and signal detection theory, and with our own clinical experiences.In this formulation, delusional speech and hallucinatory behavior are viewed as successful operants. Accordingly, we argue that such behaviors can be considered adaptive and rational, rather than maladaptive and irrational, when analyzed within a model of consequential governance that includes alternative sets of contingencies. Several clinical examples are offered to illustrate both analytic procedures and the design of systemic treatment programs based upon a behavioral contingency analysis derived from a natural science of behavior. Throughout, we emphasize the consequential governance of these clinically important classes of behavior, in contrast to other approaches which suggest formal similarities to operant verbal behavior but largely ignore the role of consequential contingencies.     

A Story About a Stupid Person Can Make You Act Stupid (or Smart): Behavioral Assimilation (and Contrast) as Narrative Impact

Media priming refers to the residual, often unintended consequences of media use on subsequent perceptions, judgments, and behavior. Previous research showed that the media can prime behavior that is in line with the primed traits or concepts (assimilation). However, assimilation is expected to be less likely and priming may even yield reverse effects (contrast) when recipients have a dissimilarity testing mindset. Based on previous research on narrative comprehension and experience as well as research on media priming, a short-term influence of stories on cognitive performance is predicted. In an experimental study, participants (N = 81) read a story about a stupid soccer hooligan. As expected, participants who read the story without a special processing instruction performed worse in a knowledge test than a control group who read an unrelated text. Participants with a reading goal instruction to find dissimilarities between the self and the main protagonist performed better than participants who read the story without this instruction. The effects of reported self-activation and story length were further considered. Future inquiries with narratives as primes and contrast effects in media effects research are discussed.     

Self-Editing: On the Relation Between behavioral and Psycholinguistic Approaches

In Skinner's (1957) conceptual analysis, the process of self-editing is integral to the dynamic complexities of multiply determined verbal behavior, but the analysis has generated little in the way of an experimental analysis. The majority of scientific work on self-editing has taken place within linguistics and cognitive psycholinguistics. Here we compare and contrast behavioral and cognitive psycholinguistic approaches to self-editing, highlighting points of contact that can be identified despite fundamental differences in theoretical styles. We conclude that the two approaches are not mutually exclusive on all dimensions, and suggest that a consideration of cognitive psycholinguistic research may help to spur an experimental analysis of self-editing from a behavioral perspective.     

REALITY MONITORING,PSYCHOLOGICAL TOOLS,AND COGNITIVE FLEXIBILITY IN BILINGUALS: THEORETICAL SYNTHESIS AND PILOT EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION*

An attempt was made to bring about a theoretical synthesis of such seemingly unrelated concepts as ‘reality monitoring’ (belonging to contemporary American cognitive psychology), ‘psychological tools’ (suggested by Russian psychologist, Lev Vygotsky in the 1930s), and ‘cognitive flexibility in bilinguals’ (developed by Canadian researchers in the 1970s). Psychological tools of symbolic character which-as Vygotsky and his followers suggested-mediate human actions and mental operations, were shown to improve reality monitoring, i.e., subject's ability to discriminate between memories of words that he/she either spoke or merely thought. The concept of cognitive flexibility was applied to reality monitoring in Russian-English bilinguals. It was shown that greater cognitive flexibility associated with balanced bilingualism enhances a subject's ability to discriminate memories of words said and words thought. Suggestions are made concerning further possible experimental investigations.     

Behavior analysis and decision making

Behavior analysts have developed powerful methodologies to assess central phenomena in areas that have been dominated by cognitive psychologists. Advances in instructional control, stimulus equivalence, choice, rule-governed behavior, matching to sample, and verbal behavior are some of the tools that have been developed in the experimental analysis of behavior. Although the article focuses on the experimental analysis of reasoning, this is but one of the areas in which behavior analysts should have a greater impact on contemporary psychology.     

Innateness in cognitive science

Innateness is one of the central concepts of cognitive science; but it is also a source of considerable confusion. In this article, I survey recent attempts to understand the notion of innateness as it figures in cognitive science and indicate which is likely to prove most fruitful. One approach draws directly on our "commonsense" views about innate traits. Another aims to characterize innateness in terms of concepts drawn from biology, such as genetic determination. Yet neither strategy has met with much success. This could indicate that a satisfactory account of innateness needs to make use of the conceptual resources of cognitive science itself. A proposal that takes this suggestion seriously is outlined, and an appeal is made for a more systematic assessment of the role and significance of the notion of innateness to cognitive science.     

Radical behaviorist interpretation: Generating and evaluating an account of consumer behavior

This article considers an approach to the radical behaviorist interpretation of complex human social behavior. The chosen context is consumer psychology, a field currently dominated by cognitive models of purchase and consumption. The nature of operant interpretation is considered, and several levels of operant analysis of complex economic behavior in affluent marketing-oriented economies are developed. Empirical evidence for the interpretation is considered, and a case is made for the qualified use of the hypothetico-deductive method in the appraisal of operant interpretations of complex behaviors.     

Theory and method for research on aptitude processes

The theoretical and methodological concepts available to, and needed by, research on aptitudes as cognitive processes are discussed. Contemporary views of cognitive processes are examined in relation to individual difference constructs and methods used to examine their reliability and validity. Individual difference constructs are discussed in relation to cognitive process models and research thereon. Studies of short-term memory processes are reviewed to demonstrate the complementary strengths and weaknesses of experimental and correlational methods and concepts. A coordinated approach to the study of aptitude as information processing is suggested.     

句子加工和语义记忆结构的实验研究

本文报告的实验,以句子验证范式为基础,采用常规试验和信号试验相混合的程序,对汉语句子加工的有关问题作了考察,实验结果表明,句子理解的时间,依赖于人对句中所含概念之间语义关系的认知度;人对句子的理解是一个部分信息逐渐积累的过程。根据实验材料,作者对语义记忆的结构问题作了讨论。     

Link between early maladaptive schemas and defense mechanisms

IntroductionDefense mechanism and early maladaptive schemas are two concepts distorting the perception of reality.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to explore the link between two reality-distorting concepts from two theoretical models: early maladaptive schemas from the cognitive and behavioral model and defense mechanisms based on the psychoanalytic model.MethodTwo hundred thirty-two non-clinical participants completed the Defense Style Questionnaire and the Young Schema Questionnaire (short version). Then a Bravais Pearson correlation analysis connecting these two concepts, and a multiple regressions analysis using early maladaptive schemas as predictors for defense style mechanisms levels were conducted.ResultsThe results indicate that 2 early maladaptive schema domains (i.e. other-directedness as well as over-vigilance and inhibition) predict the frequency of use of the neurotic defense mechanism, and 3 schema domains (i.e. disconnection and rejection, impaired autonomy and performances as well as impaired limits) predict the frequency of use of the immature defense mechanism.ConclusionTo conclude, two psychological concepts based on two different theoretical models (psychoanalytic and cognitive and behavioral therapy) seem to share an important link justifying the use of integrative therapies such as schema therapy.     

Behavioral economics

Economics, like behavioral psychology, is a science of behavior, albeit highly organized human behavior. The value of economic concepts for behavioral psychology rests on (1) their empirical validity when tested in the laboratory with individual subjects and (2) their uniqueness when compared to established behavioral concepts. Several fundamental concepts are introduced and illustrated by reference to experimental data: open and closed economies, elastic and inelastic demand, and substitution versus complementarity. Changes in absolute response rate are analyzed in relation to elasticity and intensity of demand. The economic concepts of substitution and complementarity are related to traditional behavioral studies of choice and to the matching relation. The economic approach has many implications for the future of behavioral research and theory. In general, economic concepts are grounded on a dynamic view of reinforcement. The closed-economy methodology extends the generality of behavioral principles to situations in which response rate and obtained rate of reinforcement are interdependent. Analysis of results in terms of elasticity and intensity of demand promises to provide a more direct method for characterizing the effects of “motivational” variables. Future studies of choice should arrange heterogeneous reinforcers with varying elasticities, use closed economies, and modulate scarcity or income. The economic analysis can be extended to the study of performances that involve subtle discriminations or skilled movements that vary in accuracy or quality as opposed to rate or quantity, and thus permit examination of time/accuracy trade-offs.