THE SOCIAL USES OF TELEVISION

Building from the social constructivist view, this paper provides evidence that audience members create specific and sometimes elaborate practical actions involving television in order to gratify particular needs in the context of family viewing. The ethnography of mass communication is recommended as a methodological framework suitable for discovering and documenting these behaviors. Based on findings from systematic participant observation research, and from the pertinent uses and gratifications literature, a typology of the social uses of television, with emphasis on their communicative value, is presented. Mass media are found to be valuable social resources, not unlike language or the occasions for talk, which are particularly useful to the imaginative social member for the construction and maintenance of desired relations at home.     

USES OF DIALOGUES AND MORAL UNDERSTANDING

In reflecting upon the Confucian, Socratic, and Zen dialogues, one is inevitably impressed with contrasting ways of moral thinking. For both theory and practice, apart from the more conceptual interest in rational reconstruction, it appears to be worthwhile to explore the function and significance of these ethical uses of dialogues with a view to drawing certain models or focal lenses for understanding the different dimensions of moral experience. With this limited aim in mind, I shall first present a general characterization of certain aspects of these uses, and then present considerations for their philosophical and practical significance.     

There’s an App for that: The Uses and Gratifications of Online Social Networks for Gay Men

This essay is an exploratory study of the uses and gratifications of social networking applications and sites widely utilized by gay men. Based on findings from six different focus groups and intercept interviews with gay and bisexual men, this essay explores the motivations and perceived benefits of social networking sites that allow for the creation of a virtual community of sexual minorities. This paper also considers these technological developments as part of a larger history of gay men communicating with other gay men within a culture where talk about homosexuality is closely policed and often restricted. Through a uses and gratifications approach, this essay discusses the needs and motivations that bring gay men online to social network sites, how they manage multiple identities online and the resulting gratifications of their online activity.     

LONELINESS,PARASOCIAL INTERACTION,AND LOCAL TELEVISION NEWS VIEWING

A conceptual model was developed predicting parasocial interaction from both a social interaction need due to loneliness and instrumental television news use. Questionnaires were completed by 329 persons. Pearson and partial correlations supported hypotheses linking loneliness with less interpersonal communication and both loneliness and parasocial interaction with more television reliance. Loneliness and parasocial interaction were not correlated. Canonical correlation analysis supported expectations that instrumental news viewing for information was related to more parasocial interaction and perceived news realism; viewing news for exciting entertainment, news affinity, and news viewing levels correlated positively with this pattern. Ritualized news viewing for time consumption was related to more television viewing, but to less news viewing, duration, and affinity. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis identified news affinity, perceived news realism, and information news viewing motives as salient predictors of parasocial interaction with a favorite local television news personality. Implications of results were discussed in light of uses and gratifications research and communication interaction.     

Autobiographical memories of televised sporting events watched in different social settings

The present study asked 157 men and 154 women to recall their memories of viewing both enjoyed and nonenjoyed televised sporting events from the past year in each of four social circumstances: with friends, with family, with spouse, boyfriend/girlfriend or significant other, and by oneself. For memories of all eight events, participants were asked (1) the number and sex of coviewers, (2) concurrent behaviors and cognitions engaged in while viewing, (3) uses and gratifications sought for enjoyed events, and (4) failed uses and gratifications for nonenjoyed events. Two analyses of variance, one full multiple regression, and one step-wise regression were conducted. Analyses indicated that social circumstance of viewing and sex of participant were associated with uses and gratifications for enjoyed events, failed uses and gratifications for nonenjoyed events, and concurrent behaviors and cognitions engaged in during the viewing. Results are discussed in light of the uses and gratifications paradigm and Wenner and Gantz's 1998 five fanship dimensions. An extension of this model to nonenjoyed sporting events is proposed.     

THE MISUSES AND APPROPRIATE USES OF NORM‐REFERENCED TESTS OF READING COMPREHENSION

This article reviews four uses for norm‐referenced tests of reading comprehension: (a) as a means of placing students at the appropriate instructional level, (b) as a means of diagnosing reading difficulties, (c) as a means of documenting instructional gain, and (d) as a means of predicting future comprehension performance. It is suggested that the first three uses listed above are actually misuses of the tests. The only appropriate use is to predict future performance.     

Ethnic Identity Gratifications Selection and Avoidance by African Americans: A Group Vitality and Social Identity Gratifications Perspective

Abstract

This study explores the relatively new idea that individuals engage with media in an effort to meet their social identity needs. Specifically, the study broadens the social identity gratifications (SIG) approach to the domain of ethnicity by examining how African Americans’ ethnic identity gratifications selection and avoidance are related to their perceptions of ingroup vitality. Two mediation models involving level of ethnic identification are proposed. Although the model of television selection is not supported, the model of television avoidance is supported. Implications and future research are discussed.     

Social identity gratifications of social network sites and their impact on collective action participation

Collective action has been studied by social psychologists for over a century. Social network sites such as Facebook have further extended the ability of individuals to instigate social, political and organizational change, and provide a new context in which to study collective action. Drawing on social identity theory (SIT), self‐categorization theory (SCT) and uses and gratifications theory (UGT), this study explores the role of individuals’ group identification, social identity gratifications (SIG) and Facebook group use intensity on their willingness to participate in collective actions instigated through a Facebook group. Members of a Facebook group representing a cause against management completed an online survey (N = 406). Factor analyses reveal that motivations based on psychological affiliation with the group explained the most variance for Facebook group use. Moreover, compared to Facebook group use intensity, SIG were the stronger mediator between group identification and willingness to participate in collective action. The study demonstrates the utility of blending concepts from SIT, SCT and UGT to explore how socially motivated uses of the media can predict collective actions.     

Uses and Gratifications of Media Violence: Personality Correlates of Viewing and Liking Violent Genres

This study examined the relation between personality factors, as measured by the NEO Personality Inventory-Revised and individuals' viewing and enjoyment of various television and film genres. Five hundred fifty adults between the ages of 18 and 78 were surveyed. Utilizing a uses and gratifications model, the factors underlying media use (gratifications sought-GS) and media liking (gratifications obtained-GO), particularly of violent fare, were investigated. Overall, it was found that viewing (GS) and liking (GO) were not strongly related. In terms of personality factors, there was some supporting evidence that personality factors are associated with liking and, to a lesser extent, watching certain content. Several of the Neuroticism facets were positively related to watching violent media, watching real crime, and watching cop dramas; however, there were no significant relations between Neuroticism and liking violent content. For Extraversion, there was a negative relation with overall television viewing, but a positive one with movie watching. When extraverts did watch television, the results indicated a significant association between Extraversion and various violent genres. For Openness there was a positive relation between liking of violent media and openness to aesthetics. Last, we found that several facets of Agreeableness were negatively associated with liking violent content.     

TELEVISION USE BY CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS

The investigation explored the relationships between child and adolescent television use motivations and various sociodemographic characteristics, television viewing levels, program preference, and television attitudes. Six viewing motivations were identified: learning, passing time or habit, companionship, escape or forget, arousal, and relaxation. Age was the only demographic correlate of most of these functions. All viewing motivations correlated positively with television viewing levels, medium attachment, and perceived content reality. However, when age and level of viewing were partialed out, habitual viewing was no longer found to correlate with perceived reality. Several significant associations between viewing motivations and program preference were also noted. Arousal viewers preferred dramatic programs, while habitual, escapist, and companionship viewers favored comedies. Habitual viewers also shunned news and public affairs programs. Implications of the findings were discussed within the conceptual rubric of the uses of gratifications research perspective.     

Appreciation as Audience Response: Exploring Entertainment Gratifications Beyond Hedonism

This article elaborates upon the notion of media enjoyment in the context of film viewing by proposing a complementary type of gratification that we conceptualize as appreciation. Three studies were conducted to tap into the multidimensionality of viewers' entertainment gratifications with a special focus on the domain of more serious, poignant, and pensive media experiences typically associated with genres such as drama, history, documentary, or art films. These studies provide evidence of and measurement for gratifications related to fun and suspense, but also gratifications related to moving and thought‐provoking entertainment experiences, with all three gratifications leading to perceptions of entertainment having a more long‐lasting or enduring effect. The results are discussed with regard to the theoretical conceptualization of entertainment gratification.     

MySpace and Facebook: applying the uses and gratifications theory to exploring friend-networking sites.

The increased use of the Internet as a new tool in communication has changed the way people interact. This fact is even more evident in the recent development and use of friend-networking sites. However, no research has evaluated these sites and their impact on college students. Therefore, the present study was conducted to evaluate: (a) why people use these friend-networking sites, (b) what the characteristics are of the typical college user, and (c) what uses and gratifications are met by using these sites. Results indicated that the vast majority of college students are using these friend-networking sites for a significant portion of their day for reasons such as making new friends and locating old friends. Additionally, both men and women of traditional college age are equally engaging in this form of online communication with this result holding true for nearly all ethnic groups. Finally, results showed that many uses and gratifications are met by users (e.g., "keeping in touch with friends"). Results are discussed in light of the impact that friend-networking sites have on communication and social needs of college students.     

Conceptual Knowledge,Procedural Knowledge,and Metacognition in Routine and Nonroutine Problem Solving

When, how, and why students use conceptual knowledge during math problem solving is not well understood. We propose that when solving routine problems, students are more likely to recruit conceptual knowledge if their procedural knowledge is weak than if it is strong, and that in this context, metacognitive processes, specifically feelings of doubt, mediate interactions between procedural and conceptual knowledge. To test these hypotheses, in two studies (Ns = 64 and 138), university students solved fraction and decimal arithmetic problems while thinking aloud; verbal protocols and written work were coded for overt uses of conceptual knowledge and displays of doubt. Consistent with the hypotheses, use of conceptual knowledge during calculation was not significantly positively associated with accuracy, but was positively associated with displays of doubt, which were negatively associated with accuracy. In Study 1, participants also explained solutions to rational arithmetic problems; using conceptual knowledge in this context was positively correlated with calculation accuracy, but only among participants who did not use conceptual knowledge during calculation, suggesting that the correlation did not reflect “online” effects of using conceptual knowledge. In Study 2, participants also completed a nonroutine problem-solving task; displays of doubt on this task were positively associated with accuracy, suggesting that metacognitive processes play different roles when solving routine and nonroutine problems. We discuss implications of the results regarding interactions between procedural knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and metacognitive processes in math problem solving.     

Exploring the roles of narcissism,uses of,and gratifications from microblogs on affinity‐seeking and social capital

The purpose of this study is to examine how the uses and gratifications of microblogs (i.e. Sina Weibo) can influence interpersonal relationships, especially in affinity‐seeking and perceived social capital. Data were gathered through an online questionnaire with a sample of 431 Weibo users surveyed throughout mainland China. Results show that (i) narcissism, content‐, and social‐gratification were positively related to intensity of Weibo use, (ii) intensity of Weibo use and process‐gratification were positively related to strategic performance, whereas only content‐gratification positively predicted affinity competence. (iii) content‐ and social‐gratification positively predicted bridging social capital, whereas convenience‐gratification and affinity‐seeking predicted bonding social capital, and (iv) intensity of Weibo use was positively related to both types of social capital only when Weibo gratifications were not included in the regression equations. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.     

Remarks on Wittgenstein's über Gewissheit and a Norwegian discussion

In the late forties and in the fifties, what was then known as the Oslo School of Philosophy, that is, Arne Naess and his students, received some fame, or notoriety, for its empirical investigations of lay uses of various epistemological terms, such as ‘true’, ‘certain’, ‘probable’. It is less known that Arne Naess, in 1953, opened up a series of investigations into conceptual frameworks, the comparability of conceptual frameworks, and the senses, if any, in which a conceptual framework can be said to represent knowledge. In the course of these investigations Arne Naess, together with some of his students, developed views that are strikingly close to those of Ludwig Wittgenstein in Über Gewissheit. This paper examines some of those similarities and a few dissimilarities.     

ON DAVIDSON'S REFUTATION OF CONCEPTUAL SCHEMES AND CONCEPTUAL RELATIVISM

Despite Donald Davidson's influential criticism of the very notion of conceptual schemes, the notion continues enjoying its popularity in contemporary philosophy and, accordingly, conceptual relativism is still very much alive. There is one major reason responsible for Davidson's failure which has not been widely recognized: What Davidson attacks fiercely is not the very notion , but a notion of conceptual schemes, namely, the Quinean notion of conceptual schemes and its underlying Kantian scheme-content dualism. However, such a notion simply cannot carry the weight of conceptual relativism for it does not catch the essences of conceptual relativism. Consequently, I argue that the very notion of conceptual schemes and conceptual relativism have survived Davidson's attack. Therefore, the failure of the Quinean notion of conceptual schemes and Kantian scheme-content dualism, even if Davidson can claim victory, does not mark the end of the very notion of conceptual schemes.     

Gratifications, collective self-esteem, online emotional openness, and traitlike communication apprehension as predictors of Facebook uses

This study explores whether and how gratifications and psychological traits impact people's Facebook use. First, a factor analysis of an online survey (N= 437) outlined a unique set of gratifications obtained from the use of Facebook. Six aspects of gratifications (i.e., social surveillance, entertainment, recognition, emotional support, network extension, and maintenance) were identified. Results from regression analyses showed that psychological traits (i.e., collective self-esteem, online emotional openness, and traitlike communication apprehension) were strong predictors of most Facebook gratifications. Additionally, gratifications and, to a lesser extent, psychological traits significantly predicted Facebook usage, both in perceived importance and different indicators in the level of Facebook use.     

FREEDOM AND NEUROBIOLOGY: A SCOTISTIC ACCOUNT

Abstract With the aid of some Scotistic conceptual distinctions, I develop a way of meeting the apparent deterministic sway of neurobiology. I make a careful distinction between formal and material freedom. Formal freedom, the ability to will or not to will a certain state of affairs regardless of whether it can be effectuated, remains, even if our material freedom to effectuate it is hampered by neurobiological mechanisms. These conceptual findings are linked with contemporary empirical research on obsessive‐compulsive disorder and the possibility of volitional modulation of cerebral function.     

A RULES APPROACH TO THE STUDY OF TELEVISION AND SOCIETY

A rule-based theoretical framework is presented as an alternative to scientific laws or purely interpretive approaches for examination of the activities undertaken by television audiences. Communication rules, which explains human actions in terms of its pragmatic and normative rather than causal features, is productively applied to the study of audience activity at two levels—the family and the larger society. Habitual, parametric, and tactical rule types are defined and described in relation to basic mass communication processes. Television-related interpersonal activities in the home are shown to be rule-governed while audience members and sources of media programming at the societal level are revealed to engage in rule-based interaction that perpetuates selected ideologies and their accompanying lifestyle models. Communication rules is proposed as a viable approach for resolving fundamental problems in mass communication theory building, including the “effects” vs. “uses” argument regarding direction of influence, and conceptual and methodological differences that have often polarized media critics and empiricists.     

Internet gratifications and internet addiction: on the uses and abuses of new media.

Internet addiction has been identified as a pathological behavior, but its symptoms may be found in normal populations, placing it within the scope of conventional theories of media attendance. The present study drew upon fresh conceptualizations of gratifications specific to the Internet to uncover seven gratification factors: Virtual Community, Information Seeking, Aesthetic Experience, Monetary Compensation, Diversion, Personal Status, and Relationship Maintenance. With no parallel in prior research, Virtual Community might be termed a "new" gratification. Virtual Community, Monetary Compensation, Diversion, and Personal Status gratifications accounted for 28% of the variance in Internet Addiction Tendency. The relationship between Internet addiction and gratifications was discussed in terms of the formation of media habits and the distinction between content and process gratifications.