Rumors Denials as Persuasive Messages: Effects of Personal Relevance,Source, and Message Characteristics1

Denial is a commonly used strategy to rebut a false rumor. However, there is a dearth of empirical research on the effectiveness of denials in combating rumors. Treating denials as persuasive messages, we conducted 3 laboratory‐based simulation studies testing the overall effectiveness of denials in reducing belief and anxiety associated with an e‐mail virus rumor. Under the framework of the elaboration likelihood model, we also tested the effects of denial message quality and source credibility, and the moderating effects of personal relevance. Overall, the results provided some support for the effectiveness of denials with strong arguments and an anxiety‐alleviating tone in reducing rumor‐related belief and anxiety. The effects of denial wording and source credibility were visible for participants who perceived high personal relevance of the topic. Limitations of the current research and future research directions are discussed.     

Appropriateness of anxiety and drive for affiliation

Anxiety was induced in first/only born and later born subjects by the threatened injection of a harmless drug. Perceived appropriateness of the induced anxiety was manipulated by the experimenter's suggestion that anxiety over an injection was either perfectly natural (appropriate condition) or to be found only in rather nervous and effeminate men (inappropriate condition). The results indicated that the anxiety induction was successful, but that the perceived appropriateness of the anxiety determined the tendency to affiliate. Subjects in the appropriate condition showed a significantly greater tendency to affiliate than did subjects in the inappropriate condition. Birth order was related to anxiety on one of two measures, but was not implicated in the determination of the affiliative tendency.     

The Social Adjustment of Delinquents Who are Unable to Inhibit old Automatic Perceptual Responses

Summary

This study explored rumor transmission as a function of the anxiety of the group exposed to that rumor. Four eight-member groups which were designated either as high anxiety or low anxiety on the basis of scores on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale (MAS) were presented with a rumor through a sociometrically selected individual. Issues relevant to the groups, with basic similarities across all four groups, were selected as the rumors. That these topics were equally important to the individuals involved is testified to by the fact that importance rating on these issues at the conclusion of the study did not differ significantly among the groups. As predicted, the groups that were high anxious when confronted with a rumor of importance transmitted that rumor throughout that group with a higher frequency than did the groups of low anxious members when confronted with an issue of importance. A model of rumor transmission dependent upon anxiety was proposed.     

Rumor Has It: The Moderating Effect of Identification on Rumor Impact and the Effectiveness of Rumor Refutation1

Two studies were undertaken to examine the moderating effect of identification with a rumor target on rumor impact and refutation effectiveness. We show that identification and its opposite, disidentification, bias the way individuals react to a rumor. That is, as identification with the rumor target increased from disidentification to neutral to identification, belief in an aversive rumor declined. Furthermore, the effectiveness of a refutation was moderated by an individual's level of identification. People with a neutral identification level processed a refutation heuristically and were persuaded by it, whether it contained strong or weak arguments. Disidentifiers, who engaged in systematic processing, believed the rumor less only when the refutation contained strong arguments. Identifiers, processing heuristically, remained unbelieving in the rumor.     

基于不公平感的谣言对转基因风险评价的影响

谣言是常见的社会现象,但其传播过程的"心理黑箱"还是缺乏探索的问题。在情绪评价理论的基础上,采用对照实验,通过转基因食品情景模拟来考察不公平谣言及辟谣行为对风险认知评价及情绪的影响。结果表明:(1)转基因风险评价产生的情绪可分为后果型和伦理型;(2)不公平感会导致更强烈的伦理型及后果型情绪,并使得被试倾向于高估转基因风险;(3)辟谣对转基因风险评价能起到一定干预作用,但不能完全抵消谣言对情绪的影响。     

Should I just listen to you or change your mind too? Target's perceived efficacy of agents’ interpersonal affect improvement strategies

People shape and influence others’ emotions every day. If these attempts are perceived as successful, they may have a positive effect on people's relationships and well-being. Across two studies, targets’ perceived efficacy of regulation strategies to improve their sadness and anxiety/stress has been investigated. In Study 1, participants (n = 120) were provided with two scenarios depicting sadness and anxiety/stress and asked to imagine themselves in these situations. Afterwards, they were provided with different regulation strategies and asked to rate their perceived efficacy to downregulate their sadness and anxiety. In Study 2, participants (n = 120) were asked to describe a situation where they felt sad and another one where they felt anxious. They were then provided with strategies aimed at reducing their sadness and anxiety. Results from both studies showed that whereas for sadness higher perceived efficacy was predicted by affective engagement, for anxiety/stress was predicted by cognitive engagement.     

Psychological Correlates of the Transmission and Acceptance of Rumors About AIDS1

The present investigation was intended to identify the emotional and cognitive factors associated with the transmission and acceptance of widely disseminated misconceptions about AIDS. A rumor questionnaire listing 10 prevalent misconceptions about AIDS was completed by 229 college students. Consistent with predictions derived from current rumor theory (Rosnow, 1980, 1988), anxiety elicited by AIDS rumors was found to be the factor most strongly related to rumor transmission. The subjects who reported having changed their behavior as a result of the AIDS crisis also were likely to transmit AIDS rumors. Regression analysis revealed that, together, personal anxiety elicited by specific rumors and behavior change represented the strongest predictors of AIDS rumor transmission (R²= .24, p < .0001). Anxiety-provoking rumors perceived as important and personally consequential were most likely to be believed (R²= .56, p < .0001). A minority of subjects (12%) reported behavior changes that actually reduce the risk of AIDS. Implications of this research for AIDS public education campaigns are discussed.     

Perceived Source Variability Versus Familiarity: Testing Competing Explanations for the Truth Effect

This article tests 2 competing explanations for the truth effect, the finding that repeated statements are believed more than new statements. Previous research has put forth 2 explanations for this effect—subjective familiarity and perceived source variability. The subjective familiarity explanation holds that repeated statements feel more familiar and are therefore believed more than new statements. This explanation has received strong support in the literature. The source variability explanation holds that people attribute repeated statements to different sources; this belief, that multiple sources endorse the statement, increases belief in repeated statements relative to new statements attributed to a single source. However, previous studies testing this explanation have confounded source variability with source credibility. This research aims to tease apart the effects of subjective familiarity and source variability while holding source credibility constant across conditions. Results of the first 2 experiments manipulating number of sources and measuring recognition implicate subjective familiarity rather than perceived source variability as the mechanism underlying the truth effect. However, the third study demonstrates that source variability does enhance belief in repeated statements that are initially perceived as low in plausibility. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

The Effects of Salesperson Compensation on Perceptions of Salesperson Honesty1

A reputation for honesty and trustworthiness is important to success in sales. In this article, we report 2 experiments examining the effects on perceived salesperson honesty of information about how the salesperson is compensated (commissions vs. straight salary). In both experiments, commissioned salesmen were perceived as less honest than were noncommissioned salesmen, but compensation method had no effect on the perceived honesty of saleswomen. The discussion of these findings focuses on their implications for sales management.     

社交媒体信任对重大突发公共卫生事件中公众网络谣言自治行为的影响

从社会心理学视角、以社交媒体信任为切入点,基于新冠肺炎疫情,考察公众在重大突发公共卫生事件中网络谣言自治行为的心理机制。采用问卷方法对963名成年居民进行调查。结果表明:(1)公众对官方社交媒体的信任既能直接促进公众的辟谣行为,也能通过增强公众对战胜疫情的信心产生间接影响;(2)公众对官方社交媒体的信任影响公众对自媒体的信任,但自媒体信任不能独立于官媒信任影响辟谣行为。因此,我国社交媒体存在着两个舆论场且官方舆论占主导地位,及时、有效的官方报道不仅能提高公众对战胜疫情的信心,也能促进公众网络谣言自治,进而实现网络谣言治理主体的多元化。     

Source credibility and syllogistic reasoning

Two experiments examined whether a source credibility effect would be observed for a syllogistic reasoning task. In the experiments, people were given two statements, presented as the results from a survey, followed by a conclusion that was supposedly made by one of two sources. In Experiment 1, one of the sources was described as honest and the other as dishonest, and in Experiment 2, one of the sources was described as an expert and the other as a non-expert. Because a pilot experiment showed that credibility can be overridden by people’s experience with a source, all conclusions in Experiments 1 and 2 were ones that were likely to be accepted (i.e., necessary and possible strong conclusions). Both experiments showed a clear source credibility effect, particularly for the invalid conclusions. These results, along with the belief bias effect and previous research with conditional reasoning, suggest that people can be influenced by extraneous context, such as the honesty or expertise of a source, in a syllogistic reasoning task.     

Lung function, adherence and denial in asthma patients who exhibit a repressive coping style

Lung function, adherence and denial were explored in asthma patients who possess a repressive coping style (repressors). Repressors (low trait anxiety, high defensiveness) and non-repressors were identified by their trait anxiety and defensiveness scores. Participants completed measures of self-reported adherence, denial, morbidity and demographic data. A lung function measure (FEV(1)) was obtained for a subset of patients. Repressors, who comprised 33% of the sample, had significantly worse lung function but scored significantly higher on self-reported adherence, compared to non-repressors. Age was positively correlated with adherence. Although repressive coping was positively correlated with denial, denial was significantly correlated with defensiveness but not trait anxiety. The study provides evidence that repressors are an important group to identify in future studies of asthma.     

自闭症儿童父母歧视知觉对群际关系的影响:一个有调节的中介作用模型

采用问卷法对474名自闭症儿童父母进行调查研究,考察歧视知觉对自闭症儿童父母群际关系的影响,同时考察群际焦虑的中介作用以及自尊对该中介过程的调节。结果表明：（1）歧视知觉对自闭症儿童父母的群际关系具有显著负向预测作用;（2）群际焦虑在自闭症儿童父母的歧视知觉和群际关系中起部分中介作用;（3）自尊调节了群际焦虑在歧视知觉和群际关系间中介作用的直接路径和后半路径。具体而言,在高自尊情况下,自闭症儿童父母的歧视知觉对群际关系的影响作用加强;在低自尊情况下,自闭症儿童父母的群际焦虑对自闭症儿童父母群际关系影响作用加强。     

Extraversion and Agreeableness: Divergent Routes to Daily Satisfaction With Social Relationships

We examined the unique effects of extraversion and agreeableness (and honesty‐humility) on everyday satisfaction with family, friends, romantic life, and acquaintances, and explored potential mediators of these effects. Three diary studies (Ns = 206, 139, 185) were conducted on Singaporean university students. In Studies 1 and 2, participants rated their satisfaction with different relationship categories. In Study 3, participants rated their satisfaction and social interactions with 10 target individuals each day for a 1‐week period. Both extraversion and agreeableness predicted relationship satisfaction. However, the effect of extraversion was mediated by greater levels of trust in others, whereas the effect of agreeableness was mediated by less frequent negative exchanges (e.g., criticism, perceived anger, and perceived neglect). The effect of honesty‐humility on negative exchanges was similar to agreeableness. When both were entered as predictors, only the effect of honesty‐humility was significant. We discuss how the processes by which personality affect relationship satisfaction vary depending on the trait as well as the particular measure that is used (IPIP NEO PI‐R, California Q‐Set, and IPIP‐HEXACO).     

儿童期虐待对大学生公正世界信念的影响:有调节的中介模型

为探讨儿童期虐待对公正世界信念的作用及心理机制,本研究采用问卷法对929名大学生进行了调查,并采用潜变量模型对数据进行了分析。结果发现:(1)儿童期虐待显著负向预测大学生公正世界信念;(2)控制感在儿童期虐待与公正世界信念之间起完全中介作用;(3)家庭社会经济地位调节了儿童期虐待与控制感的关系,高家庭社会经济地位放大了儿童期虐待与控制感间的负相关。研究结果表明,可以通过预防儿童虐待和增强控制感等干预措施来提升公正世界信念,并且需要对高社会经济地位家庭的儿童虐待加大关注。     

Eating Ethically: 'Spiritual' and 'Quasi-religious' Aspects of Vegetarianism

Much contemporary belief and behaviour that is not ostensibly religious has yet been perceived to have religious overtones. A variety of terms such as 'invisible religion', 'implicit religion' and 'quasi-religion' have been used to characterise them. This article examines vegetarianism and especially vegetarianism based upon ethical concerns in order to ascertain the extent to which it can be said to exhibit religious or spiritual themes in its ideology and underlying motives. A number of 'quasi-religious' themes, including taboo and avoidance behaviour, reverence for life, the denial of death, reincarnation, observance of disciplines and the rejection of domination and oppression are found to characterise ethical vegetarianism. Support for these conclusions is found in the data from a survey of vegetarians carried out in the Reading area of South Eastern England, of which some results are presented and discussed. The article concludes with a discussion of the appropriateness of using concepts such as 'quasi-religion'. It is argued that although such terms are currently useful, they must in the longer term be replaced by concepts which do not imply that such behaviour is a form of religion or which characterise it always in relation to religion, but which recognise its own distinctive and essentially non-religious character.     

Beliefs m Realistic and Unrealistic Control: Assessment and Implications

ABSTRACT Scales were constructed to measure perceived control over controllable events (realistic control) and perceived control over uncontrollable events (unrealistic control). Internal reliability, test-retest reliability, and discriminant validity of both scales were adequate. Study 1 measured perceived personal control over hassles that judges rated on general controllability. For hassles very high in controllability, perceived personal control was related to belief in realistic control but not to belief in unrealistic control; for hassles very low in controllability, perceived personal control was related to belief in unrealistic control but not to belief in realistic control. Study 2 showed that participants high in unrealistic control belief (but not those high in realistic control belief) persevered more on a task that was in part uncontrollable. Study 3 showed that the combination of low realistic control belief and high unrealistic control belief predicted poorer future health, particularly for participants who have reported the experience of many negative events and/or hassles. The conditions under which unrealistic control results in maladaptive outcomes are discussed.     

Applicant Perceptions of Selection Procedures: The Role of Selection Information,Belief in Tests,and Comparative Anxiety

This study addresses the effects of the provision of information on the reliability and validity of selection procedures and the effects of test–taker attitudes (i.e., belief in tests and comparative anxiety) on fairness perceptions. Prior to an actual selection process, applicants (N= 118) were given either information about the reliability and validity of various selection procedures or no information. Next, they evaluated the fairness of eight selection procedures. No significant effect of selection information was found. Belief in tests had significant effects, with applicants high on test belief giving higher fairness ratings than applicants low on test belief. In addition, an interaction effect between test belief and selection procedure was found. For example, test belief had larger effects on fairness for structured interviews, personality inventories, and cognitive ability tests. No significant effect of comparative anxiety on fairness was found.     

The Effects of Demand Characteristics,Evaluation Anxiety,and Expectancy on Juror Honesty During Voir Dire

This study makes use of the basic experimental research on the social psychology of experiments in understanding the jury-selection process. A survey asked ex-jurors to report on their experiences during jury selection. The ex-jurors reported on the factors that influenced the honesty of their responses during voir dire. The findings were consistent with previous laboratory results, with evaluation anxiety producing the most significant changes in juror honesty. However, both evaluation anxiety and demand characteristics influenced juror behavior depending on the motives of the juror. Expectancies of judges and lawyers appeared to have little effect on the reported honesty of ex-jurors.     

谣言传播的情境、内容、传播者与受众特征及相关认知神经科学研究

什么样的谣言更容易获取信任、得到传播？面对谣言,为何有人理性批判,有人则毫不犹豫地点“赞”、转发？这是大众和研究者们共同关注的问题。本文主要从情境、内容特征、传播者与受众特征这三个维度论述了影响谣言传播的因素。从情境特征来看,谣言在模糊且具有潜在威胁的情境中更易传播,封闭的舆论场也助长了谣言传播;从内容特征来看,包含适当情绪内容、针对特定对象的谣言更易得到传播;从传播者与受众特征来看,一方面,可靠消息源会增强人们的传播意愿;另一方面,受众的认知局限、人格特质、动机、价值观等,均可能造成认知偏差或歪曲,助长谣言传播。以往研究多采用问卷调查法,今后需要更多严格控制变量的实验研究,从行为和神经层面深入探讨谣言传播的机制。最后,社交媒体数据采集与分析技术的发展,尤其是计算传播学等交叉学科的发展,为谣言传播研究提供了新的思路和方法。