对抗偏见:作为偏见消减策略的社会行为

对抗偏见是偏见对象或旁观者对偏见持有者表示不满的社会行为,能够降低偏见持有者的偏见水平,并有助于形成反偏见的社会规范,是一种有效的偏见消减策略。对抗偏见领域的研究可分为对抗偏见效果研究与对抗偏见行为研究。前者主要采用材料型和实验型研究范式,关注对抗偏见的作用机制、具体效果及对抗偏见效果的影响因素;后者主要采用回顾型、实时记录型和前瞻型研究范式,关注对抗偏见行为的发生机制和影响因素。将来这一领域需注重研究范式的综合使用及生态效度的提高,以促进对抗偏见效果研究与对抗偏见行为研究的有机结合;并在对抗偏见的神经机制和有效策略方面进一步深入探索。     

双重身份下女性对抗性别偏见的回应行为

偏见不是一种单方面的社会心理现象, 而是偏见持有者、偏见对象、旁观者等多方相互作用和共同建构的结果。当女性在作为受害者和旁观者两种不同身份时, 她们对性别偏见持有者的回应既有相同之处, 也存在着一些差异。压力应对模型和对抗偏见反应模型可作为适应女性双重身份下对抗偏见的两种解释模型, 在面对偏见持有者时, 不同身份下女性对性别偏见的回应行为主要受到乐观、代价/收益、痛苦水平和女权主义等因素的影响。未来研究应进一步聚焦对抗性回应行为的效度争议、对内隐性别偏见持有者的干预和拓展想象接触的替代作用。     

偏见的自我调节研究述评

偏见不是不可避免的。个体能够依靠自我调节来控制偏见反应。拥有高控制偏见内部动机且低控制偏见外部动机的个体能最有效地控制偏见, 包括内隐偏见。这类个体的控制偏见动机的内化程度最高, 而内化程度高的控制偏见动机能自动起作用。四分过程模型能分离出自动过程和控制过程对内隐测量任务的影响, 因此能更好地解释自动激活的联接和自我调节是如何交互影响行为的。未来的研究应进一步探索如何发展控制偏见内部动机和对内隐控制偏见动机的测量等问题。     

社会本质主义对偏见的影响及其机制

社会本质主义是关于社会类别的直觉理论,是对社会类别差异的一种生物性归因。大量研究显示社会本质主义助长了种族、性别与阶层偏见,但也可以减少对肥胖、同性恋与罪犯的偏见。在种族、性别与阶层等被强加的社会类别中,稳定性线索强,社会本质主义导致人们认为该社会类别下的群体之间的差异难以改变,折扣环境解释,进而促进偏见;在肥胖、同性恋与罪犯等个体选择的社会类别中,可控性线索强,社会本质主义导致人们认为该社会类别下的一些群体成员的污名身份是不可控的,折扣个体选择的解释,进而减少偏见。未来研究应关注导致不同后果的社会本质主义信念产生和发展的过程,在此基础上开发出系统、持续、有效的干预措施,为消除偏见,减少群际冲突,推进和谐社会建设提供科学心理学方案。     

善意和敌意性别偏见及其对社会认知的影响

敌意性别偏见是一种出于对女性敌对情感的性别偏见;善意的性别偏见则是指一种主观上出于爱护女性的正面情感,通过特定角色限制而对女性形成的一种性别偏见态度。二者的具体心理结构分别包括两性权力、性别间能力差异和异性性行为等三个维度。不同类型性别偏见对人们有关女性群体和个体的社会认知及其态度存在重要影响     

现代社会认知理论框架下的偏见研究及其走向

０引言半个多世纪以来,许多心理学家、社会学家、人类学家和历史学家都纷纷描述或解释影响偏见（ｐｒｅｊｕｄｉｃｅ）形成及其发展的可能性因素,其中社会心理学家的研究最为集中且卓有成效。社会心理学领域内的偏见研究最早始于本世纪二、三十年代有关民族态度及种族偏见的问卷调查;四、五十年代则集中探讨偏见以及歧视的改变;从五十年代末到六十年代,其间的工作主要是设计各种有关偏见起源的个体或社会水平的理论模型;随着认知加工范式的勃兴,偏见社会认知理论开始出现并得到了持续发展。迄今为止,偏见领域的一般研究都非常强调认…     

国外偏见测量研究综述

本文介绍了国外的偏见测量经历的三个发展阶段:起始阶段、外显问卷测量阶段和内隐测量阶段。     

神经科学偏见效应：可重复性及其心理机制的探索

神经科学的发展对其他学科以及社会产生了重要的影响。虽然神经科学方法与行为研究方法都是探索人类心理与行为的有效手段并各有所长, 但神经科学的研究结果却可能引起人们过度的解读和信任。研究者发现, 当某一结论使用神经科学结果作为证据时, 比使用行为科学结果或者心理生理学指标作为证据时更加让人信服, 即使神经科学结果与该结论之间毫无关系, 这种现象被称为神经科学偏见(neuroscience bias)。通过系统回顾近年来关于神经科学偏见的研究, 我们发现：(1)虽然神经科学偏见存在可重复性的争论, 但该效应确实存在; (2)神经科学偏见的产生可能是因为个体倾向于还原论的解释(即使用低层次、简单的机制来解释更高层次上的现象)及心理本质主义的影响(即人们认为心理与行为的本质是神经活动)。神经科学偏见反映了公众对科学结果解读的偏见, 未来研究需要探讨这种偏见的心理机制, 从而引导科学结果的正确解读和运用。     

文化同化与冲突下的民族认同与民族偏见

分别从文化、文化同化、文化冲突、民族认同及民族偏见的内涵出发,介绍了民族认同与民族偏见的研究现状;提出在文化同化与文化冲突下,个体在民族认同与民族偏见中所表现出来的四种不同的综合民族态度并对这四种态度进行了详细介绍。最后,对我国研究民族认同与民族偏见及其二者之间的关系进行了总结与展望。     

“蜜糖裹砒霜”：善意性别偏见对女性生涯发展的影响

善意性别偏见因持有者的主观好意往往难以被识别为偏见, 但会通过限制女性的角色形象和将其置于弱者地位从而巩固性别不平等的状况。近年来大量实证研究发现, 善意性别偏见从家庭教育、婚恋角色分工和职场竞争等方面挤压女性的生涯发展空间; 相比来自他人态度的直接作用, 这些消极影响更多通过女性对善意性别偏见的自我内化来实现。针对这一作用机制, 研究者们从女性感知和应对善意性别偏见的个体心理层面提出了多种理论解释。我们认为, 从女性主义心理学视角审视善意性别偏见的相关研究, 如何秉持研究立场的客观性和价值观的中立性是值得反思的问题; 女性主义心理学的最新理论发展也对性别偏见的研究趋势具有重要启示。     

The “Islamized Stranger”: On “Chronic” Versus “Contextual” Salience in the Measurement of Anti‐Muslim Prejudice

There is an ongoing debate whether anti‐Muslim prejudice in Western countries is more widespread than prejudice towards other ethno‐cultural groups or general ethnic prejudice. Previous research used different methodologies and yielded contradictory results. In this article, we combine a population‐based split‐sample survey experiment (N = 1,323), where half of the respondents judged items about Muslims and the other half statements about strangers, with an open question probing which groups respondents thought of when thinking about “strangers.” We furthermore extend previous research by not only focusing on general ethnic prejudice, but to differentiate between perceived trustworthiness, economic, cultural, and security threat. Our results strongly support the idea that the difference between the “chronic” and “contextual” salience of the target of prejudice should be taken into account.     

The association between implicit and explicit prejudice: the moderating role of motivation to control prejudiced reactions

The main aim of the present research was to assess the relationship between implicit and explicit ethnic attitude measures and to examine the impact of motivation to control prejudiced reactions on this relation. Implicit ethnic prejudice was assessed by a response latency measure, and a self-report modern prejudice scale was used to assess explicit prejudice. The results showed that an association between implicit and explicit attitudes was observed only when the explicit attitude measure was corrected for motivational bias. The findings are discussed in relation to previous research reporting either association or dissociation between implicit and explicit attitude measures.     

The Psychology of Sexual Prejudice

Sexual prejudice refers to negative attitudes toward an individual because of her or his sexual orientation. In this article, the term is used to characterize heterosexuals' negative attitudes toward (a) homosexual behavior, (b) people with a homosexual or bisexual orientation, and (c) communities of gay, lesbian, and bisexual people. Sexual prejudice is a preferable term to homophobia because it conveys no assumptions about the motivations underlying negative attitudes, locates the study of attitudes concerning sexual orientation within the broader context of social psychological research on prejudice, and avoids value judgments about such attitudes. Sexual prejudice remains widespread in the United States, although moral condemnation has decreased in the 1990s and opposition to antigay discrimination has increased. The article reviews current knowledge about the prevalence of sexual prejudice, its psychological correlates, its underlying motivations, and its relationship to hate crimes and other antigay behaviors.     

The Struggle for the Nature of “Prejudice”: “Prejudice” Expression as Identity Performance

This article develops an identity performance model of prejudice that highlights the creative influence of prejudice expressions on norms and situations. Definitions of prejudice can promote social change or stability when they are used to achieve social identification, explanation, and mobilization. Tacit or explicit agreement about the nature of prejudice is accomplished collaboratively by persuading others to accept (1) an abstract definition of “prejudice,” (2) concrete exemplars of “prejudice,” and (3) associated beliefs about how a target group should be treated. This article reviews three ways in which “prejudice” can be defined in the cut and thrust of social interaction, namely, by mobilizing hatred and violence, by accusation and denial, and by repression. The struggle for the nature of prejudice determines who can be badly treated and by whom. Studying such ordinary struggles to define what counts (and does not count) as “prejudice” will allow us to understand how identities are produced, norms are set into motion, and populations are mobilized as social relations are reformulated.     

A model for predicting prejudice and stigma expression by understanding target perceptions: The effects of visibility,politicization, responsibility,and entitativity

The study of hostile orientations toward outgroups is divided into three main domains: (i) overt (explicit, old-fashioned, or hostile) prejudice; (ii) veiled (implicit, modern, aversive, or subtle) prejudice, and (iii) stigma. To date, there is no systematic account of which form of hostility is likely to be expressed toward members of particular target groups. We propose a model that integrates the two forms of prejudice and the concept of stigma into a single framework. The contingency model of stigma and prejudice expression postulates that overt or veiled prejudice is a function of an interaction of prevailing perceptions of target groups within their cultural context. There are four major target perceptions that influence prejudice expression through increasing threat perception: visibility, target politicization, responsibility, and entitativity. These target perceptions describe the process and the qualitative conditions that determine the expression of prejudice toward members of different groups and social categories.     

Developmental Intergroup Theory: Explaining and Reducing Children's Social Stereotyping and Prejudice

ABSTRACT— Social stereotyping and prejudice are intriguing phenomena from the standpoint of theory and, in addition, constitute pressing societal problems. Because stereotyping and prejudice emerge in early childhood, developmental research on causal mechanisms is critical for understanding and controlling stereotyping and prejudice. Such work forms the basis of a new theoretical model, developmental intergroup theory (DIT), which addresses the causal ingredients of stereotyping and prejudice. The work suggests that biases may be largely under environmental control and thus might be shaped via educational, social, and legal policies.     

Relationships between gender self-esteem,sexual prejudice,and trans prejudice in cisgender heterosexual college students

Our understanding of sexual prejudice, or prejudice against gay men, lesbian women, bisexual people, and other sexual minorities, has improved substantially over the last few decades. Less is known about the factors that predict trans prejudice, or prejudice against trans people. Using the framework of social identity theory, we examined the relationship between gender self-esteem, sexual prejudice toward gay men and lesbian women, and trans prejudice in a sample of 391 self-identified cisgender heterosexual students from a Midwestern university in the United States. Compared to women, men reported more sexual prejudice, trans prejudice, more prejudice toward gay men than lesbian women, and more violence toward, teasing of, and discomfort around trans women than trans men. Whereas both men and women reported more teasing of trans women than of trans men, men reported more discomfort around trans women and women reported more discomfort around trans men. Gender self-esteem significantly predicted sexual prejudice and trans prejudice in men but not women. Consistent with other research, our results indicate that men's sexual prejudice and trans prejudice may be motivated by similar factors, whereas the predictors of women's prejudice may be more specific to the type of prejudice.     

When Is the Time to Hate? A Research Review on the Impact of Dramatic Events on Islamophobia and Islamophobic Hate Crimes in Europe

Social scientists have long been interested in the significance of unexpected, dramatic events for social change. However, when it comes to research on prejudice and hate crimes, the impact of sudden, dramatic events has been little considered. The purpose of this research review is to survey European data to elucidate the temporal links between unexpected events, prejudice, and hate crimes, and also to pinpoint some of the methodological problems faced by scholars studying the impact of unanticipated dramatic events on prejudice and hate crimes; the significance of unexpected events often leaves researchers without access to relevant baseline data. The studies of Islamophobia and Islamophobic hate crimes considered in the present article privilege a dynamic view of time: terrorist attacks instill a sense of uncertainty and risk and Islamophobia and hate crimes are to a large extent event-driven and reactive, and tend to flare up on the heels of dramatic events. The recent attention paid to the role of unexpected, dramatic events represents a new and very promising approach to the study of prejudice and hate crimes; with the earlier, essentially spatial research focus now complemented by a temporal focus, the chances increase of charting the underlying dynamics and causes of prejudice and hate crimes.     

Differences in Anglo and Asian Australians' explicit and implicit prejudice and the attenuation of their implicit in-group bias

Research has shown that not only are minority groups capable of possessing implicit and explicit prejudice but that the study of their attitudes provides unique insight into the nature of prejudice. The current study found that in an Australian context, Asian participants displayed significantly less implicit prejudice and significantly greater explicit prejudice than their Anglo counterparts. This finding provided further evidence of the dissociation of explicit and implicit attitudes, specifically in regard to their predication. In addition, the attenuation of the implicit prejudice of both the Anglo majority and Asian minority group members was investigated. Brief exposure to positive out-group exemplars was found to attenuate the implicit bias of Asian but not Anglo participants, suggesting that this technique may be contingent upon more fundamental prejudice-reducing measures and providing further support that the undermining of implicit biases requires long-term, effortful processes.