Maternal Depressive Symptoms and Behavior Problems in Preschool Children from Low-Income Families: Comparison of Reports from Mothers and Teachers

This study compared behavior problems of children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms and children of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms, using the same measure for mothers and teachers. Participants included 914 mother–teacher dyads of low-income children (M age of child = 62.9 months, SD = 4.0) who participated in the Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project. Mothers completed a shortened version of CES-D to evaluate their own depressive symptoms. Teachers and mothers completed the Family and Child Experiences Survey Interviews (FACES) to assess children’s behavior problems. The results showed that children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms-higher than the cut-off score for possible depression- showed higher aggressive and hyperactive behaviors than did children of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms according to the mothers’ rating; however, teachers rated the children no differently. Both mothers and teachers reported higher internalizing behaviors in children of mothers with elevated depressive symptoms than did those of mothers with non-elevated depressive symptoms. Maternal depressive symptoms moderated the relations between informants (mothers and teachers) and externalizing behaviours (aggressive and hyperactive) of children. These findings underscore the need for research in different settings such as at home and at school, to measure children’s behavior problems in order to gain a more comprehensive perspective on child functioning. Results suggest an emphasis on intervention or prevention programs targeting internalizing behavior problems, specifically for children of depressed mothers in low-income families.     

Effectiveness of the home‐start parenting support program: Behavioral outcomes for parents and children

This study examined effectiveness of Home‐Start, a program designed to support parents with young children. The aims were (a) to examine whether Home‐Start improved maternal well‐being and (b) to examine whether Home‐Start led to changes in the behavior of mothers or children. Self‐reported and observational data were collected in two waves, using data from 54 mothers and their children between 1.5 and 3.5 years of age who participated in this intervention program for 6 months. These data were compared to 51 comparison families who reported need for parenting support. The results showed a significant improvement in perceived parenting competence, but no effects on maternal depressive moods. Mixed results were found for parenting behavior: Parental consistency and observed sensitivity improved significantly in the Home‐Start group whereas no effects were found on the other parenting variables. Child behavioral problems seemed to diminish at the second measurement in both groups, and therefore these changes cannot be attributed to Home‐Start.     

Parent training for young Norwegian children with ODD and CD problems: Predictors and mediators of treatment outcome

Participants were 121 children, aged 4–8 years referred for conduct problems, and their mothers. A parent training intervention was implemented in two outpatient clinics in Norway. Treatment responders were defined as children scoring below a cut-off on the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, a score below an optimal cut-off for children in day-care and school as reported by teachers, in addition to a 30% reduction or greater in observed negative parenting. Self-reported parenting practices were explored as potential mediators. The results of logistic regression analyses showed that high levels of maternal stress, clinical levels of ADHD, and being a girl predicted a poorer outcome in conduct problems at home, while pretreatment clinical levels of ADHD predicted a poorer outcome as perceived by the teachers. Harsh and inconsistent parental disciplining emerged as significant partial mediators of changes in conduct problems, highlighting the importance of altering parenting practices to modify young children's conduct problems.     

Development and validation of a measure to assess head start children's appraisals of teacher support

In this study, we present data on the development of Young Children's Appraisals of Teacher Support (Y-CATS), a measure designed to explore children's perceptions of their relations with teachers along dimensions that comprise warmth, conflict, and autonomy. Three cohorts of Head Start children and prior Head Start attendees (N=364) served as the sample. Cohort 1 children (n₁=108) were in first grade, cohort 2 children (n₂=123) were in kindergarten, and cohort 3 children (n₃=133) attended the Head Start program. Factor analyses supported a three-factor solution, with acceptable internal consistency, along hypothesized dimensions. Males, compared to females, reported more conflictual relationships with their teachers. Conflict scores were particularly pronounced for African American males. Children's reports on the Y-CATS were significantly associated with academic achievement and with teachers' ratings of social skills and behavior problems.     

Number of Children Associated with Mothers’ Perceived Need for Behavior Support: Implications for Parenting Interventions

Researchers acknowledge mothers’ contributing role in influencing children’s behavioral displays of emotion, but there is a dearth in the literature on mothers’ emotion-related behaviors, beliefs, and needs. Urban, Head Start Mothers (n = 114) participated in a quantitative, exploratory investigation to examine child, maternal and community factors that may be associated with level of expressiveness, perceived role in emotional development, and receptivity to behavior support. Findings suggested that, compared to mothers raising two or more children, those raising only one child were significantly less positive in self-reported expressiveness, less supportive of the suggested role of mothers in the literature, and less receptive to parent-focused behavior support. Implications for acknowledging possibly distinct needs of Head Start mothers of singletons as well as seeking input from more experienced Head Start mothers in devising parenting interventions will be discussed.     

Evaluation of the First 3 Years of the Fast Track Prevention Trial with Children at High Risk for Adolescent Conduct Problems

Fast Track is a conduct-problem prevention trial that derives its intervention from longitudinal research on how serious and chronic adolescent problem behaviors develop. Over 9,000 kindergarten children at 4 sites in 3 cohorts were screened, and 891 were identified as high risk and then randomly assigned to intervention or control groups. Beginning in Grade 1, high-risk children and their parents were asked to participate in a combination of social skills and anger-control training, academic tutoring, parent training, and home visiting. A multiyear universal classroom program was delivered to the core schools attended by these high-risk children. By the end of third grade, 37% of the intervention group was determined to be free of serious conduct-problem dysfunction, in contrast with 27% of the control group. Teacher ratings of conduct problems and official records of use of special education resources gave modest effect-size evidence that the intervention was preventing conduct problem behavior at school. Parent ratings provided additional support for prevention of conduct problems at home. Parenting behavior and children's social cognitive skills that had previously emerged as proximal outcomes at the end of the 1st year of intervention continued to show positive effects of the intervention at the end of third grade.     

Conduct Problems and Level of Social Competence in Head Start Children: Prevalence, Pervasiveness, and Associated Risk Factors

The purpose of the current project was to determine the prevalence of conduct problems, low social competence, and associated risk factors in a sample of 4-year-old low-income children (N = 426) from 64 Head Start classrooms in the Seattle area. Conduct problems and social competence were assessed based on a combination of teacher reports, parent reports, and independent observations of children interacting with peers in the classroom and with parents at home. We examined the relative contribution of a variety of risk factors, including maternal history and socioeconomic background, current levels of stress and social support, mothers' emotional state, and parenting competence in relation to pervasive (i.e., at home and school) and nonpervasive conduct problems and low social competence. Findings indicated similar risk factors for conduct problems and for low social competence, with an ordered increase in the number of risk factors from normal to nonpervasive to pervasive groups. Harshness of parenting style (i.e., slapping, hitting, yelling) significantly distinguished between the three groups for low social competence and conduct problems. Positive affect, praise, and physical warmth from mothers were positively related to social competence but unrelated to conduct problems.     

Effects of Parenting and Deviant Peers on Early to Mid-Adolescent Conduct Problems

We investigated the influence of effective parenting behaviors (father and mother reports) and deviant peer association (adolescent reports) on subsequent young adolescent conduct problems (teacher reports) during grades 7–9, using structural equation modeling. Data were from a sample of 226 rural adolescents (n?=?112 boys; n?=?107 girls; n?=?7 gender unknown), their parents, and teachers. Both effective parenting and association with deviant peers influenced later conduct problems; however, the pattern of influence varied across time and between fathers and mothers, with complex patterns of interactions between effective parenting and peer deviance. From seventh to eighth grade, effective parenting by both mothers and fathers buffered the effect of higher levels of peer deviance on conduct problems across adolescent gender. From eighth to ninth grade (i.e., transition into high school), fathers’ effective parenting buffered the effects of deviant peer association on their daughters’ conduct problems, whereas both fathers’ and mothers’ influence was stronger for sons when deviant peer associations were lower. Analyses also evaluated bi-directional longitudinal effects among adolescents, parents, and peers. Although varying by parent and adolescent gender or adolescent age, results generally supported the protective effects of parenting on their children’s conduct problems during early to mid adolescence.     

Validation of the Preschool and Early Childhood Functional Assessment Scale (PECFAS)

Efforts to determine the prevalence of serious emotional disturbance in preschool-aged children have been hampered by the lack of a validated measure. The Preschool and Early Childhood Functional Assessment Scale (PECFAS) is a multi-dimensional measure that assesses the psychosocial functioning of children aged 3–7 years. The concurrent validity and reliability of the PECFAS were assessed in a sample of 30 preschool-aged children in a large Head Start program in Ventura, California. PECFAS ratings based on in-depth interviews were significantly related to parental ratings that the children had mental health problems, psychiatric diagnoses, teacher ratings of the child's need for mental health evaluations, teacher ratings of behavior problems on a standardized screening inventory (DIAL-R), and actual referrals for mental health evaluations. Interrater reliability for the total PECFAS score was high (r = .90) as was internal consistency of the five subscales (alpha = .86). Using the PECFAS scores as a standard, the weighted prevalence of serious emotional disturbance in this West Coast Head Start program was 17%, at the lower end of the current estimated rate of SED for older children in low income samples (18–26%).     

Mothers' Parenting and Young Economically Disadvantaged Children's Relational and Overt Bullying

We examined links between mothers' parenting and children's relational bullying and overt bullying in a sample of children attending a Head Start program. Mothers completed surveys and face-to-face interviews. Head Start teachers completed assessments on children. Results indicated that a small percentage of children in the sample was rated by teachers as engaging in relational bullying “frequently to almost always,” and slightly over half of the sample was rated by teachers as engaging in relational bullying “occasionally to about half of the time.” Similar results were found for the frequency with which children engaged in overt physical bullying. Regarding mothers' parenting, maternal empathy was most strongly correlated with both children's relational bullying and overt physical bullying. In addition, mothers' inappropriate developmental expectations for children and mothers' need to exert power over children rather than grant them independence were related to children's relational bullying. A composite variable for mothering predicted 11% of the variance in children's relational bullying. No gender differences were found for children's relational bullying and children's overt bullying.     

School readiness in children living in non-parental care: Impacts of Head Start

The current study examines the effects of Head Start on the development of school readiness outcomes for children living in non-parental care. Data were obtained from the Head Start Impact Study, a randomized controlled trial of Head Start conducted with a nationally representative sample of Head Start programs and families. The sample included 253 children living in non-parental care (defined as a primary caregiver who self-identified as someone other than a biological, adoptive, or step-parent), who experienced elevated rates of child and family risk factors. Results revealed modest direct short-term and indirect longer-term impacts of Head Start on school readiness outcomes (increased pre-academic skills, more positive teacher–child relationships, and reductions in behavior problems) for children living in non-parental care. Limitations of this study and directions for future research are discussed.     

Home-School Communication in the Treatment of Childhood Behavior Problems

There is a shortage of intervention strategies for children with behavior disorders which incorporate both home and school influences. To address this need, a service delivery model was evaluated for public school children (Pre-K through G2) who were at risk for educational failure on account of behavior problems, family dysfunction, and poverty and social disadvantage. Interventions based on eco-behavioral principles were delivered by home-visitors in consultation with clinical child psychologists. A primary goal of all treatment plans was to enhance parent-teacher communication. Children in the experimental group (N = 34) showed overall improvement (as judged by parents) and decreases in targeted problems (as reported by teachers and parents), relative to control students (N = 15). The program decreased the number of children placed in special education. There was indication that better communication between home and school related to academic improvement. The protocol provides a possible behavioral consultation model of early intervention for behavior disorders and demonstrates how clinical services can be integrated with systems-wide dropout prevention efforts.     

Early emotional development in infants and toddlers: Perspectives of Early Head Start staff and parents

As part of a curriculum‐development project, focus groups were implemented with Early Head Start staff and with parents of infants and toddlers enrolled in Early Head Start. Focus groups were designed to identify staff and parent beliefs about early emotional development. Three major themes were identified that crossed the staff and parent focus groups: (a) Infants' and toddlers' abilities to have emotions and to be aware of others' emotions; (b) roles of parents as advocates, teachers, and disciplinarians; and (c) parental reflectivity about their own experiences as influences on their parenting. The findings suggest that parents participating in Early Head Start have some knowledge about basic emotions and the developmental nature of emotions, but may easily misinterpret emotional displays only as attempts at manipulation rather than as valid expressions of feelings; expectations for gender‐appropriate emotional expressiveness begin early; more empowered parents may view themselves as role models and teachers for their children; and more reflective parents are better prepared to engage in the sensitive interactions needed to guide young children's growing awareness of their own and others' emotions. Implications for parenting education and program planning utilizing an infant mental health perspective are discussed.     

Computer-based intervention with coaching: an example using the Incredible Years program

Increases in personal computer ownership and Internet use patterns provide a potential avenue for dissemination of evidence-based prevention and treatment interventions. The authors describe the implementation of a psychoeducational intervention (the Incredible Years parenting program, which is designed to promote behavioral change in parents and children) using a hybrid model combining computer- and web-based delivery with professional intervention via phone calls, electronic messages, and home visits. The model attempted to simulate many of the parent training methods shown to be successful in the original program. The intervention was implemented with 90 Head Start families who reported elevated levels of child behavior problems. Of the 45 families offered the intervention in the final year of the project, 37 (82%) completed at least half the program and 34 (76%) completed the entire intervention using procedures refined in light of the initial year's experience. These participants reported high achievement of their self-determined goals and were highly satisfied with the intervention. The combination of technology with professional coaching represents a potential model for adapting and disseminating evidence-based interventions.     

Maternal Depression,Locus of Control,and Emotion Regulatory Strategy as Predictors of Preschoolers’ Internalizing Problems

Childhood internalizing problems may occur as early as preschool, tend to be stable over time, and undermine social and academic functioning. Parent emotion regulatory behaviors may contribute to child internalizing problems and may be especially important during the preschool years when parents model emotion coping and regulation for their children. Parents who feel out of control of their preschoolers’ behavior and emotional states may adopt avoidant emotion regulatory strategies. We proposed that parent depression, perceived locus of control, and experiential avoidance would be linked with internalizing symptoms in a high-risk sample of preschool-aged children. We also expected that locus of control would mediate the relationship between maternal depression, experiential avoidance, and child internalizing problems. Seventy-four urban, low-income, diverse mothers of Head Start preschool children completed rating scales measuring their own depression, locus of control, experiential avoidance, and their children’s internalizing behaviors. Correlational analyses revealed that mothers reporting higher levels of depression were more likely to report experiential avoidance, feeling out of control in their parenting role, and internalizing symptoms in their children. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that locus of control explained additional unique variance in child internalizing problems over and above that explained by maternal depression. Locus of control mediated the relationship between maternal depression and child internalizing symptoms. The importance of considering parent locus of control and its relation to children’s internalizing symptoms is discussed as a potential target for early childhood prevention programs.     

Tuning in to Kids: an effectiveness trial of a parenting program targeting emotion socialization of preschoolers

This article reports on an effectiveness trial of the Tuning in to Kids (TIK) parenting program. TIK aims to improve emotion socialization practices in parents of preschool children; it is a universal prevention program that teaches parents the skills of emotion coaching and also targets parents' own emotion awareness and regulation. The present study followed a 2 × 2 (Treatment Condition × Time) design. One hundred twenty-eight parents of children ages 4.0-5.11 years were recruited from preschools and randomized into intervention and waitlist conditions. Parents in the intervention condition (n = 62) attended a six-session group parenting program delivered by community practitioners who followed intervention fidelity protocols. Parents and preschool teachers completed questionnaires twice during the preschool year: at preintervention and at follow-up (approximately 7 months later). Parents reported on their emotion socialization beliefs and practices, other parenting practices, and on child behavior. Teachers reported on child behavior (Social Competence and Anger-Aggression). Data were analyzed using multilevel modeling. At follow-up, compared to the control group, intervention parents were significantly less emotionally dismissive in their beliefs, less dismissive and more coaching in their practices in response to children's negative emotions, and more positively involved. Although there were improvements in both conditions over time for parent-reported child behavior and teacher-reported social competence, compared to the waitlist group, intervention parents reported a significantly greater reduction in number of behavior problems. This trial demonstrates the potential for community agencies and practitioners in real-world settings to deliver a new parenting program that targets emotional communication in parent-child relationships.     

Computer‐Based Intervention with Coaching: An Example Using the Incredible Years Program

Increases in personal computer ownership and Internet use patterns provide a potential avenue for dissemination of evidence‐based prevention and treatment interventions. The authors describe the implementation of a psychoeducational intervention (the Incredible Years parenting program, which is designed to promote behavioral change in parents and children) using a hybrid model combining computer‐ and web‐based delivery with professional intervention via phone calls, electronic messages, and home visits. The model attempted to simulate many of the parent training methods shown to be successful in the original program. The intervention was implemented with 90 Head Start families who reported elevated levels of child behavior problems. Of the 45 families offered the intervention in the final year of the project, 37 (82%) completed at least half the program and 34 (76%) completed the entire intervention using procedures refined in light of the initial year's experience. These participants reported high achievement of their self‐determined goals and were highly satisfied with the intervention. The combination of technology with professional coaching represents a potential model for adapting and disseminating evidence‐based interventions.     

Moderators of the Relationship Between Maternal Substance Abuse Symptoms and Preschool Children’s Behavioral Outcomes

While maternal substance use problems increase the likelihood of behavior problems in children, child outcomes are varied, leading to interest in understanding additional family factors that contribute to the development of behavior problems in children impacted by maternal substance abuse. The purpose of this study is to examine harsh parenting and family conflict as potential moderators of the relationship between symptoms of maternal substance use problems and child externalizing behavior problems. The non-clinical sample for this study included 250 low-income parents whose preschool age children were enrolled in Head Start programs in a Southern state. This study utilized data collected during two home visits, an average of 10 months apart, with data on family functioning and maternal symptoms of substance use problems collected at the first time point and child externalizing behavior collected at the second time point. Over one-third of the children (38.1 %) had clinically elevated externalizing behavior scores. We used regression analysis to examine whether harsh parenting or family conflict moderated the relationship between maternal substance use symptoms and child externalizing behavior. In this community sample, we found that in the absence of family risks related to harsh parenting and family conflict, maternal symptoms of substance use problems did not have a significant impact on child externalizing behavior in preschool children. However, when high levels of family conflict or harsh parenting were present, symptoms of maternal substance use problems increased the risk of externalizing behavior problems in children.     

In situ Training for Increasing Head Start After-Care Teachers’ Use of Praise

This study tested the effects of the direct behavioral consultation in situ training procedure for increasing Head Start teachers’ praise during an after-school program. Participants included four Head Start teachers in one Head Start center. A multiple baseline design across teachers was employed to test the effects of in situ training on teachers’ praise rate. Maintenance of the training procedure was evaluated 1 week following termination of training and again at 1-month follow-up. Results indicated that all teachers delivered praise below the expected rate (i.e., 1 praise statement per minute) during baseline, and in situ training resulted in an immediate and substantial increase in praise for all four teachers. Three of four teachers maintained increased praise during the maintenance phase and again at 1-month follow-up. One teacher’s praise decelerated during maintenance, and that teacher received additional in situ training. However, for that teacher, praise rate again decelerated following the second in situ training phase, and additional consultation procedures were necessary for increasing praise rate. Results are discussed in terms of the consultation research and applied practice.     

Outcomes of Parent Education Programs Based on Reevaluation Counseling

We report two studies in which a parent education program based on Reevaluation Counseling was field-tested on mothers randomly assigned to treatment groups or equivalent, no-treatment comparison groups. The goal was to evaluate the program's viability, whether there were measurable effects, whether those effects were sustained over time, and whether the program was effective among diverse populations. The first study involved middle income, married mothers (n = 25) with at least one child younger than age five. Eleven members of the no-treatment group participated in the program three months later. Pretest, posttest, and follow-up measures included a parental attitude survey and a parenting stress index. The second study involved 18 black mothers with children enrolled in Head Start. Six members of the no-treatment group participated in the program two months later. Added to the pretest, posttest, and follow-up measures were a parent attitude research instrument and a parenting practices questionnaire. Results were replicated within and across studies. Significant effects suggest that the program can reduce parenting-related stress, improve parental attitudes, and encourage authoritative parenting practices, although some effects tend to diminish somewhat over time. The program appears viable with mothers of various social status groups.