Menstrual Reactivity: The Role of Gender-Specificity,Anxiety Sensitivity,and Somatic Concerns in Self-Reported Menstrual Distress

To determine the impact of gender roles, anxiety sensitivity, and somatic concerns on self-reported menstrual distress, two studies were conducted. In the first study using 278 primarily Caucasian college females, anxiety-sensitivity level, not current menstrual cycle phase, influenced reports of menstrual symptom severity and depression. Regardless of cycle phase at the time of self-report, women high in anxiety sensitivity reported significantly more depressed mood, trait anxiety, and retrospective menstrual symptoms. In the second study of 158 primarily Caucasian college females varying in anxiety sensitivity levels, adherence to sex role stereotypes, feminist beliefs, and illness attitudes were examined. Participants also completed measures of general premenstrual, most-recent premenstrual, and current menstrual symptoms. Women high in anxiety sensitivity reported the highest levels of sex-specificity, feminist embeddedness, and illness attitudes, with sex-specificity accounting for significant variance in current menstrual symptoms. Results are discussed within the context of the menstrual reactivity hypothesis, which proposes that beliefs surrounding the menstrual cycle and body sensations expectancies contribute to self-reports of greater menstrual distress. Women high in anxiety sensitivity appear to represent one subgroup vulnerable to menstrual reactivity.     

Television and Sex-Role Stereotyping1

The possible influence of television on sex-stereotyped behavior was investigated in three studies. In Study I the portrayal of male and female central characters on children's Saturday morning television programs was examined, and a number of differences consistent with current sex-role stereotypes were found. Males and females were portrayed in different roles, they manifested different behaviors, and their behaviors were followed by different consequences. In addition, male characters were more frequent than females, and they exhibited higher rates of behavior. Similar differences in the portrayal of males and females in the commercial announcements accompanying these programs were found in Study II. The sexes differed in their frequency of appearance, their location, their roles, their expertise, and the consequences of their behavior. In Study III the effects on children's behavior of exposure to sex-stereotyped vs. non-stereotyped behavior by adult televised models were examined. It was found that children manifested greater imitation and recall for the behavior of a same-sex model with the result that boys exposed to “stereotyped” behavior by a male and female model manifested and recalled relatively more “masculine” behavior than those exposed to “non-stereotyped” behavior, while the opposite trend obtained for girls. Implications of these three studies for television's contribution to sex-stereotyped behavior are discussed.     

Nicknames as Sex-Role Stereotypes

Nicknames are powerful indicators of attitudes towards gender categories and because of their transient and optional nature, it has been argued that they are more likely to show a closer relationship to ongoing trends in the culture and society than other more fixed parts of the language E. B. Phillips (1990) [“Nicknames and Sex Role Stereotypes,” Sex Roles, Vol. 23, pp. 281–289]. This study reports on a survey of nickname usage among a group of South African adolescents from mixed socioeconomic backgrounds (approximately 25% other than white) in an attempt to explicate gender-linked trends in frequency of occurrence, usage and attitudes to such special names. It reveals that conventions regarding nickname coinage and usage are intimately connected to the gender of bearers and users, and that more males have nicknames and coin them than females; it also shows significant sex-linked differences in the linguistic sources and users of nicknames, and reveals a greater tendency for female nicknames to function as indicators of affection rather than for humorous or critical effect. It could be argued that these trends could be linked to the nurturing and nurtured role of females in society, and to the differences in social power generally between males and females.     

Acquiescence and the Bem Sex-Role Inventory

The Bem Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) and the Couch and Keniston Agreement Response Scale (ARS) were administered to 70 male and 72 female undergraduate students. Using the ARS scores as the dependent variable in a 2 (gender) X3 (sex-role identification) unweightedmeans factorial analysis of variance, the results showed that the two main effects and the interaction. effect were not statistically significant (F< I in each instance) indicating the lack of relationship between the BSRI and acquiescent responding.     

Sex-Role Stereotypes in Medicine

I argue for compatibility between feminism and medicine by developing a model of the physician-other relationship which is essentially egalitarian. This entails rejection of (a) a paternalistic model which reinforces sex-role stereotypes, (b) a maternalistic model which exclusively emphasizes patient autonomy, and (c) a model which focuses on the physician's conscience. The model I propose (parentalism) captures the complexity and dynamism of the physician-other relationship, by stressing mutuality in respect for autonomy and regard for each other's interests.     

Self-Destructive Consequences of Sex-Role Socialization

Suicide proneness and self-destruction scales, together with measures of self-favorability and self-confidence, were administered to two samples (n = 106 and n = 213). The affective responses of the second sample (134 women and 79 men) were measured by asking respondents to circle adjectives classified for activity-passivity, positive-negativeness, and extroversion-introversion that expressed their feelings toward eight situations. Women scored lower than men on suicide proneness, higher on self-destruction, and lower on self-favorability and self-confidence. Women reacted more passively to the situations than men and more negatively to the public challenge situation. Women tend to extrovert (turn outward on others) their positive feelings in pleasant situations and to introvert (turn blame on themselves) their negative reactions to unpleasant situations. Men do the reverse. It is suggested that women are self-destructive in passive ways, reflecting their lack of self-favorability and confidence and manifested by failure to react to everyday situations in ego-building ways.     

Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias and its relation to authoritarianism,Sex-Role Attitudes,and sex of the school psychologist

At the 1973 National Association of School Psychologists' Convention (NASP) in New York City, a national sample of 120 school psychologists (61 female, 59 male), were asked to participate in a survey measuring a wide spectrum of their attitudes. The Chasen Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias scale, consisting of eight equated “somewhat unhealthy” case histories of active and passive girls and boys, developed and validated for this study, was administered with the Trachtman Authoritarianism Scale, and the Hymer Sex-Role Attitude Scale. For the total group, authoritarianism and sex-role attitudes are not related to Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias, yet males with traditional sex-role attitudes exhibit Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias and males with untraditional sex-role attitudes exhibit counterstereotypic Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias. The sex of the school psychologist is related to Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias; that is, male school psychologists do not exhibit Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias, while female school psychologists exhibit counterstereotypic Diagnostic Sex-Role Bias. Females are most accepting of active girls, which may be considered a compensatory diagnostic mechanism to counteract stereotyping.     

Gender and Sex-Role Influences on Children''s Self-Esteem

This study examined direct and moderating influences of gender and sex-role orientations on children's general self-esteem. Moderating influences of these variables on the prediction of self-esteem were examined with respect to two sets of competence beliefs regarding school achievement: perceived capacities and perceived strategies for doing well in school. One hundred nineteen fourth-, fifth-, and sixth-grade children were assessed using the Perceived Competence Scale for Children (Harter, 1982), the Multidimensional Measure of Children's Perceptions of Control (Connell, 1985), and the Children's Personal Attributes Questionnaire (Hall & Halberstadt, 1980). Correlational and hierarchical multiple regression analyses indicated that upper elementary schoolchildren's general self-esteem is (a) marginally related to biological gender, with boys showing a slight advantage; (b) significantly related to masculinity and androgyny; and (c) predicted more strongly by perceived capacities to do schoolwork in girls than in boys, and by perceived (lack of) strategies for academic success in nontraditionally sex-typed children than in traditionally sex-typed children. Of the two nontraditionally sex-typed groups, androgynous children were found to have more positive school competence beliefs than were undifferentiated children.     

Value and Sex-Role Orientation of Chinese Adolescents

The value preference of a sample of Chinese adolescent high school students, as measured by the Rokeach Value Survey, showed a greater emphasis on the personal and competency values. Specifically, adolescents in this study tended to favour a joyous, comfortable, free, and enjoyable lifestyle. It was found that the four most important terminal values were: freedom, true friendship, happiness, and a comfortable life, while the four least important were: mature love, national security, an exciting life, and salvation. The four most important instrumental values included: capable, cheerful, broadminded, and intellectual, while the four least important included: logical, imaginative, clean, and obedient. The relationships between value preference and sex role were examined and close relationships were found, especially with respect to the instrumental values. Specifically, masculine adolescents were more agentic and instrumental, and feminine adolescents were more expressive and communal in their value preference. Androgynous adolescents were found more similar to the masculine than to the feminine group. In addition, regression analyses showed that masculinity tended to have more pervasive effects than femininity on adolescents' value preference. The implications and significance of the findings of this study in contrasting the general collectivistic depiction of Chinese and in relating to adolescent development, are discussed.     

Patterns of Culturally Defined Sex-Role Preference and Parental Imitation

Summary

The theory that males tend to identify with a culturally defined, masculine role and that females tend to imitate their mothers was assessed by administering the It Scale (culturally defined role preference) and the Imitation Schedule (parental imitation) to 36 white, middle-class, third-grade boys and girls. Boys' masculine role preference was higher than the girls' feminine preference (t = 4.62, p < .0005), and there was no difference in same-sexed imitation scores (t = .24, p > .05). Boys' masculine preference was higher than their father imitation (t = 1.85, p < .05), and the girls had higher mother imitation than feminine preference (t = 1.85, p < .05). The interpretations were complicated by the fact that the girls' preference was in the masculine range. The results suggested that boys identify with a culturally defined, masculine role, that girls show a similar tendency, and that neither sex imitates the same-sexed parent consistently.     

Sex and Sex-Role Comparisons in the Expression of Anger

This study investigated the relationship of sex and sex-role identity with the expression of anger. In particular, a number of common assertions about women's experience and expression of anger were examined empirically. Female (242) and male (213) college students completed several questionnaires assessing sex-role identity and multiple dimensions of the subjective experience and expression of anger. Univariate analyses revealed consistent relationships between sex-role identity and anger proneness, outward expression of anger, modulation or control of anger expression, and suppression of anger. Significant sex difference, were not observed. Viewed unidimensionally, sex did not appear to be the determining factor in anger expression or the tendency to suppress anger.     

Development of the Revised Sex-Role Behavior Scale

This study describes the construction of the Revised Sex-Role Behavior Scale (SRBS-2), a 240-item self-report inventory comprised of male-valued, female-valued, and sex-specific items in four interest/behavior areas: Recreational and leisure activities, vocational preferences, social interaction, and marital behaviors. Two-hundred sixteen items were administered to 520 undergraduate males and females under three instructional sets. One-third of the subjects compared the typical young adult man and woman on the items, one-third rated the desirability of the items for men and women, and the remaining subjects rated themselves. Subjects in this latter condition also rated the 160 items from the SRBS-1. Typical and desirability ratings were used to select items to add to the SRBS-1 male-valued (more typical of men but desirable for both sexes), female-valued, and sex-specific (more typical of one sex and desirable only for that sex) scales. The resulting overall and area subscales had adequate internal consistency. Intercorrelations among the area subscales showed a fair degree of consistency across behavior areas, suggesting that global sex-role behavior assessments may be obtained with the overall SRBS-2 scales but that more detailed and accurate assessments require the use of separate area subscale scores.     

Sex-Role Orientation and the Willingness to Confront Existential Issues

The relationship between sex-role orientation and willingness to confront existential issues was examined. Eighty-eight undergraduates completed the Bem Sex Role Inventoy and Avoidance of Existential Confrontation (AEC) scale. A Sex × Masculinity × Femininity analysis of variance of AEC scores showed that masculine men and feminine women reported the least willingness to confront existential issues. Androgynous men were the most receptive to facing existential issues. These findings are discussed in terms of the defensiveness often evidenced by sex-typed persons and the importance of responding to the existential concerns of young adults struggling to establish a sex-role identity.     

Factor and discriminant analysis of the Bem Sex-Role Inventory

Several studies have recently recommended that items which fail to load substantially (< .40) on one of several primary factors characterizing the Bem Sex-Rote Inventory (BSRI) could be deleted without substantial loss of interpretability. This recommendation is questioned on the basis that the extent of interrelatedness of the items is an insufficient indicator of the contribution each item makes towards the classification (identifying sex-types by Bem's median split technique) efficiency of the inventory. Empirical support of this contention was provided by conducting several discriminant analyses (predicting sex-types) on a sample of 1117 BSRI protocols and excluding the various items suggested by the earlier research. These results were then compared with the results of a discriminant analysis using the 40 masculine and feminine items. The analyses using less. than all 40 items produced substantially poorer discrimination than when all 40 items were included. The results Suggest that decisions to exclude items on the basis of factor analysis may be inappropriate and risk serious loss of power in classifying individuals by sex-type.     

Boyhood Sex-Role Development: Implications for Counseling and School Practices

Counseling boys requires an understanding of sex-role development in shaping a boy's personality because establishing gender identity is a major developmental task of boyhood. This article presents a 3-stage model of sex-role development and discusses school practices to promote sex-role development.     

Sex-Role Differentiation in Preschoolers: Effects of Maternal Employment

The purpose of the present study was to determine whether maternal employment affects sex-role differentiation in preschoolers, and whether this relationship varies as a function of the sex of the child, father's presence or absence, and/or the sex of the child's siblings (N = 398 boys and girls, mean age 51.2 months). The dependent measure consisted of a maximally reliable composite z score derived from five tests (Draw-A-Person, Occupational Preference, Nadleman Recall, Toy Preference, It Scale for Children). The fact of the mother working and the social status of her occupation were unrelated to sex-role differentiation, regardless of whether the child was a girl or a boy; had brothers, sisters, both, or was an only child; or came from an intact or nonintact family. However, the main effect for sex and the sex of child × sex of sibling interaction were significant.     

Menstrual expressions and menstrual attitudes

Women's responses to a questionnaire survey in a Northeastern U.S. college community are examined to determine whether usage preferences in menstrual expressions are systematically related to reported attitudes towards menstruation. While those women who use expressions with negative connotations tend to report negative attitudes, the converse is not true. A striking contrast is noted between familiarity and use of menstrual expressions and, in general, menstrual expressions are not consistently associated with or reflective of menstrual attitudes.