EFL Teachers’ Verbal and Nonverbal Immediacy: A Study of its Impact on Students’ Emotional States,Cognitive Learning,and Burnout

Effective teacher–student interaction is an essential element of an ideal classroom which promotes the opportunity for expanded learning and stimulates the connections between students and teacher. The focus of the present study is on an instructional communication element that is teacher immediacy. It is defined as the mutual sensory and psychological stimulation between teacher and students. It can be verbal or nonverbal. Verbal immediacy is characterized as stylistic differences in expression from which like–dislike is inferred and includes using humor or personal examples, getting feedback, or even calling students by name. Nonverbal immediacy encompasses behaviors such as appropriate eye contact, the use of gestures, movement about the classroom, smiling, and vocal variety. In particular, the present study sought to explore the impact of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers’ perceived verbal/nonverbal immediacy on students’ self-actualization, stress-control, and self-esteem. Moreover, it examined the role of EFL teachers’ immediacy behaviors in students’ cognitive learning and emotional exhaustion, which is a burnout subscale. To this end, 206 EFL students participated from selected universities of Mashhad, a city in northeast of Iran. The respondents were asked to complete five inventories about themselves and the previous EFL teacher they had had classes with. The results of structural equation modeling demonstrated that teacher immediacy behavior had a positive significant impact on all student-related variables: stress tolerance (β?=?.65, t?=?7.59), self-actualization (β?=?.69, t?=?8.02), self-esteem (β?=?.63, t?=?7.71), burnout (β?=?.31, t?=?4.05), and cognitive learning (β?=?.45, t?=?6.08). The highest impact was exerted on self-actualization and self-esteem.     

Perceptions of campus climate, academic efficacy and academic success among community college students: an ethnic comparison

The present study examined whether there are ethnic differences in perceptions of campus climate, social support, and academic efficacy among community college students, and whether student perceptions were associated with academic success. A total of 475 community college students completed a questionnaire that measured students’ perceptions of cultural congruity, college environment, mentoring, peer social life and academic self efficacy. Ethnic differences were observed, as African American and Caucasian students reported higher levels of cultural congruity than Asian students and higher academic self efficacy than Asian and Latino students. There were also ethnic differences in the relationship between the students’ perceptions and GPA. Cultural congruity and efficacy correlated with GPA among Latino students, academic efficacy correlated with GPA among Asian students, peer social support and college environment correlated with GPA among Caucasians, however, none of the perceptions scales correlated with GPA among African American students. The lack of relationship between academic efficacy and GPA among African American and Caucasians students is discussed.     

The Application of Cognitive‐Developmental or Mediated Cognitive Learning Strategies in Online College Coursework

This research article explores the active use of cognitive‐developmental or mediated cognitive learning strategies in undergraduate online courses. Examples and applications are drawn from two online sessions integrating online interaction, essay and discussion assignments, as well as a variety of multimedia components conducted during the spring of 2008. While focus on the interaction among students remains an important aspect of the online discussion environment, particular attention is given to the interaction between the student and the instructor. This paper argues that while online learning environments are ultimately student‐controlled, they should be teacher‐centered. The findings of this research suggest that students are more directly influenced by an instructor's intentional effort to mediate the learning process than by the course objectives, material, or subject matter. Successful use of online technologies requires deliberate action on the part of the instructor to integrate various mediated cognitive learning strategies: (a) student participation and response is significantly increased, and (b) student motivation and morale is dramatically influenced.     

Students’ self-regulation and achievement in basic reading and math skills: the role of student–teacher relationships in middle childhood

In this study, we explored both direct and indirect contributions of students’ perceptions of the student–teacher relationship quality (i.e., closeness and conflict) to domains of self-regulation (i.e., task-orientation and metacognition) and basic reading and math skills (i.e., timed word reading and math performance) in middle childhood. Participants were 370 third-to-fifth graders from different regular elementary classrooms across the Netherlands. Using structural equation modelling, evidence was found for positive direct associations between student-perceived closeness and both domains of self-regulation, and a negative direct association between student-perceived conflict and task-orientation. However, indirect associations of closeness and conflict with students’ achievement in basic math and reading skills, through task-orientation and metacognition, could not be established. These results suggest that students’ perceptions of the relationship quality, and closeness in particular, may be especially important for their ability to regulate motivational and cognitive aspects of their own learning.     

Sensitivity to criticism and theory of mind: A cross cultural study on Japanese and Italian children

Although recent studies have shown cross-cultural differences in theory of mind (ToM) between children in Western and Eastern cultures, little is known about cross-cultural differences pertaining to social correlates. The present research investigated cultural variations in the relationship between sensitivity to criticism and ToM. Japanese (n = 76) and Italian (n = 76) 6-year-olds completed a sensitivity-to-criticism task (either the teacher condition or the peer condition), second-order false-belief tasks, and a verbal ability test. The results replicated previous findings of an association between ability rating after teacher criticism and ToM in both countries. Cultural variation was found in emotional response and motivation after teacher, but nor peer, criticism. Japanese children responded to teacher criticism more positively than did Italian children. Moreover, Japanese children who failed the second-order false-belief task were more motivated after teacher criticism than were Italian children. These results are discussed in relation to differences in cultural factors.     

Construction and validation of a japanese adaptation of the test anxiety inventory

This study describes the construction and validation of a Japanese adaptation of Spielberger's (1980) Test Anxiety Inventory (TAI) and presents evidence of the reliability and validity of this new instrument. The items for the Japanese TAI (TAI-J) were selected on the basis of content validity and itemremainder correlations, which were .40 or higher for both sexes. Alpha reliability coefficients for the TAI-J Total scores were .90 or higher for both high school and college students; test-retest stability over a three-week interval was .89. Mean TAI-J Total scores for Japanese high school females were significantly higher than those of Japanese college students, whose scores were slightly lower than those reported for American undergraduates. TAI-J Total scores correlated .72 with a Japanese trait anxiety measure. Significant negative correlations were found between TAI-J Total scores and measures of academic achievement. Implications of these results for the measurement of test anxiety in Japanese students are discussed from a cross-cultural perspective.     

教师自主支持与学生学业成就关系的元分析:心理需要满足、动机及投入的中介作用

在教育实践中,教师作为教学活动的主要引导者,他们的教学风格对学生的学业成就具有重要影响。根据自我决定理论,自主支持型教师能够满足学生的基本心理需要,促进学习动机内化,进而提高学业投入及学业成就。本研究通过对37篇教师自主支持与学生学业成就的实证研究(53个独立样本,18278名学生)进行元分析,结果发现:(1)教师自主支持显著正向预测需要满足、动机、投入及学业成就;同时自主支持对需要满足、动机及投入的效应量高于对学业成就的效应量;(2)学生的需要满足及动机在教师自主支持对学业成就影响中起中介作用,但学业投入的中介作用不显著;(3)教师自主支持对学业成就的影响在不同年龄、经济与文化背景下没有显著差异。综上,在未来的教育活动中,教师应给予学生更多的自主支持,以满足学生基本心理需要,激发学生的学习动机,促进学业投入,提升学业成就。     

A structural equation model of pre‐service teachers' perceptions of future goals and current course‐related motivation

This study examined relationships between pre‐service teachers' perceptions of future goals and motivation to complete current tasks required in teacher education courses. Using 351 pre‐service teachers' survey responses from two southern universities in the USA, a full‐structural modeling was conducted. Results showed pre‐service teachers' perceived endogenous instrumentality (value of the current course “content” to attain future goals) had a direct effect on their intrinsic motivation, and their perceived exogenous instrumentality (value of the current “grade” to attain future goals) had a direct effect on their extrinsic motivation. This research suggests students' understanding of a relationship between their course content and future goal encourages their motivation to learn for enjoyment. Furthermore, students' understanding of a relationship between the course grade of the current course and their future goal encourages their motivation to get a high course grade, not necessarily because they enjoyed the course content. This study contributes to understanding pre‐service teachers' cognitive/motivational characteristics and to developing appropriate learning environments of teacher education that align with pre‐service teachers' learning characteristics to promote their effective learning.     

The effect of nonverbal teacher approval on student attentive behavior

The effect of contingent nonverbal teacher approval on student attentive behavior was examined in a classroom with 12 retarded children. After baseline data were gathered on contingent verbal and nonverbal teacher approval and student attentive behavior, the teacher was instructed to increase her use of contingent nonverbal approval (smiles and physical contact) and to maintain her baseline level of verbal approval. After a reversal phase, the nonverbal approval phase was reinstated. Nonverbal teacher behaviors increased during the experimental phases, whereas verbal teacher approval (alone or in conjunction with nonverbal behaviors) did not increase. Attentive behavior increased for 11 of 12 students during the phases in which contingent nonverbal teacher approval increased. Correlational data suggested that nonverbal teacher approval accounted for behavior change of the students to a greater extent than did changes in the amount of teacher approval per se or in the teacher's use of verbal approval.     

Similarities and dissimilarities between teachers' and students' relationship views in upper elementary school: The role of personal teacher and student attributes

The present study aimed to advance insight into similarities and dissimilarities between teachers' and students' views of closeness and conflict in their dyadic relationship, and personal teacher and student attributes that contribute to these views. In total, 464 students (50.2% girls) and 62 teachers (67.5% females) from grades 4 to 6 participated in this study. Teachers filled out questionnaires about their background characteristics, self-efficacy (TSES), and student–teacher relationship perceptions (STRS) and students answered questions about their demographics and the student–teacher relationship quality (SPARTS). Peer-nominations were used to measure students' internalizing and externalizing behavior. Tests for measurement invariance suggested that the conflict and closeness constructs both approximated similarity across students and teachers. Multilevel structural equation models furthermore indicated that students' relationship perceptions, and conflict in particular, were predicted by their own gender, socioeconomic status, and internalizing and externalizing behavior. Additionally, teaching experience negatively predicted students' perceived conflicts. Teachers' relationship perceptions were both predicted by their own characteristics (teaching experience) and student features (gender, socioeconomic status, and externalizing behavior). These predictors explained between 39% and 61% of the variance in student- and teacher-perceived closeness and conflict. Last, teachers' general self-efficacy was positively associated with mean levels of closeness, and negatively associated with mean levels of conflict across student–teacher dyads.     

Associations between depression, distress tolerance, delay discounting, and alcohol-related problems in European American and African American college students

Although levels of heavy drinking and alcohol-related problems are high in college students, there is significant variability in the number and type of problems experienced, even among students who drink heavily. African American students drink less and experience fewer alcohol-related problems than European American students, but are still at risk, and little research has investigated the potentially unique patterns and predictors of problems among these students. Depression, distress tolerance, and delay discounting have been implicated in adult substance abuse and may be important predictors of alcohol problem severity among college students. We examined the relationship between these variables and alcohol-related problems among African American and European American students (N = 206; 53% female; 68% European American; 28% African American) who reported recent heavy drinking. In regression models that controlled for drinking level, depression, distress tolerance, and delay discounting were associated with alcohol problems among African American students, but only depression was associated with alcohol problems among European American students. These results suggest that negative affect is a key risk factor for alcohol problems among college student drinkers. For African American students, the inability to tolerate negative emotions and to organize their behavior around future outcomes may also be especially relevant risk factors.     

Profiles of bystanders' motivation to defend school bully victims from a self‐determination perspective

This study was aimed at exploring which latent profiles emerge based on ratings of self‐determined motivation to defend victims of bullying, and to explore if they are related to bystander roles and victimization in bullying, as well as student–teacher relations. Data were collected from 1,800 Swedish and Italian students, with an age range between 10 and 18 years (M = 12.6, standard deviation = 1.74). The students completed a survey in their classrooms. Latent profile analysis was used to explore the possible clusters of individuals with similar ratings on the motivational variables. Multivariate analysis of variances were conducted to explore differences between the profiles in relation to their roles when witnessing bullying and to student–teacher relationships. Four latent profiles emerged. The profiles represented respondents (a) high in prosocial motivation, (b) high in externally extrinsic motivation, (c) intermediate in externally extrinsic motivation, and (d) with identified/introjected motivation. Multivariate analyses showed that reports of bystander roles when witnessing bullying, teacher–student relationships, and bullying victimization, significantly differed over the motivational profiles. The bystanders were unevenly distributed across the four groups and most individuals were categorized in the prosocial motivation group. Female and male bystanders were evenly distributed across clusters. The prosocial motivation group experienced victimization to a lesser extent than the other profile groups. Students in the intermediate externally extrinsic group were more likely to take the pro‐bully and outsider role during bullying. Concerning student–teacher relationships, the prosocial motivation group reported the closest relationships with their teachers, while the intermediate externally extrinsic group reported the most conflictual relationships.     

Confronting Math Stereotypes in the Classroom: Its Effect on Female College Students’ Sexism and Perceptions of Confronters

Women often face sexism and stereotypes about their academic ability, and this makes it important to examine the effects of confronting sexism in the college classroom. The current research consisted of 2 studies of how witnessing a confrontation of a sexist stereotype in the classroom affects female students’ perceptions of the confronters and self-reported sexism. The samples consisted of female students from a public college in the Northeastern U.S. who provided their perceptions of teachers described in vignettes as either confronting or not confronting a student’s stereotype of women as unskilled at math. In Study 1 (N?=?48) perceptions of the teacher were more positive when confronting the stereotype, and students’ self-reported sexism was reduced when the teacher confronted rather than ignored the stereotype. Study 2 (N?=?56) compared the effects of a teacher versus a student confrontation of the same stereotype. Participants perceived the teacher and student more positively when they confronted rather than ignored the stereotype. However, the source of the confrontation yielded no differences in sexism. These results suggest that students want their teachers to respond to bias in the classroom and that teachers should respond to sexist incidents in order to reduce the level of sexism among their students.     

Cultural Styles of Conflict Management in Japanese and Americans: Passivity,Covertness, and Effectiveness of Strategies1

We asked 94 Japanese and 98 American students to report their recent experiences with interpersonal conflicts; they reported 476 episodes. The content analyses of these episodes were conducted in terms of desired and engaged conflict management strategies, effectiveness of chosen strategies, covertness of conflicts, and motives for covertness. Strategies other than simple avoidance were coded into four types, based on Falbo and Peplau's (1980) model. As a result, a particularly strong tendency to avoid conflict was found among Japanese subjects, who were motivated by both their desire to preserve relationships and their perceptions of shared responsibility. These findings were interpreted in terms of cross-cultural concepts of collectivism versus individualism (Triandis, 1989a) and independent versus interdependent self (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).     

CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARISONS ON PSYCHOSEMANTICS OF ICONS AND GRAPHICS

This study is to report a cross-cultural comparison on perceptions of icons and graphics and their relationships. Data were ratings of 10 icons and 10 graphics against 21 bipolar semantic differential scales from 325 college students in three countries, Mexico, Columbia, and Japan. Cross-cultural factor analyses resulted in the identification of four semantic (three affective and one denotative) features, three icon factors, and three graphic factors. Indigenous cultural means of these iconic and graphic factors were computed and used to probe cross-cultural similarities and differences in perceptions. Psychosemantics of icon factors were further predicted by graphic factors through canonical correlation. This study concludes the importance of implicit cultural meanings of nonverbal figures in intercultural communications. The implications of this study are also discussed.     

Attitudes related to work of adolescents in the United Kingdom and Japan

This study was designed to provide data for notions that differences in achievement motivation in different nations may contribute to differences in national rates of economic growth. The nations investigated were the United Kingdom and Japan as representatives of low and high rates of economic growth in the decades after the end of World War II. Data were collected from college students for motivations and attitudes related to work. British students had higher achievement motivation, while Japanese students had higher competitiveness motivation and strong money beliefs. Differences in career preference between the nations were also presented. The relationship between motivations and attitudes to work with career preference were examined for each nation.     

Pre- to Post-Season Changes in the Intrinsic Motivation of First Year College Athletes: Relationships with Coaching Behavior and Scholarship Status

This study examined whether the intrinsic motivation levels of first-year college athletes changed from pre- to post-season as a function of their scholarship status or their perceptions of their coaches' behavior. Division I college athletes ( N = 72) completed questionnaires assessing their intrinsic motivation at the beginning and end of their first year of participation. They also reported their scholarship status and their perceptions of their coaches' behaviors over the season. Contrary to predictions, results revealed that neither scholarship status nor time affected the athletes' level of intrinsic motivation. Strong support for the relationship between athletes' perceptions of their coaches' behavior and changes in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation over the season, however, emerged. Increases in athletes' level of intrinsic motivation were associated with athletes' perceptions that their coaches exhibited high frequencies of training and instruction behavior, and low frequencies of autocratic behavior and social support. Results are discussed in relation to cognitive evaluation theory and previous research on intrinsic motivation.     

Examining classroom influences on student perceptions of school climate: The role of classroom management and exclusionary discipline strategies

There is growing emphasis on the use of positive behavior supports rather than exclusionary discipline strategies to promote a positive classroom environment. Yet, there has been limited research examining the association between these two different approaches to classroom management and students' perceptions of school climate. Data from 1902 students within 93 classrooms that were nested within 37 elementary schools were examined using multilevel structural equation modeling procedures to investigate the association between two different classroom management strategies (i.e., exclusionary discipline strategies and the use of positive behavior supports) and student ratings of school climate (i.e., fairness, order and discipline, student–teacher relationship, and academic motivation). The analyses indicated that greater use of exclusionary discipline strategies was associated with lower order and discipline scores, whereas greater use of classroom-based positive behavior supports was associated with higher scores on order and discipline, fairness, and student–teacher relationship. These findings suggest that pre-service training and professional development activities should promote teachers' use of positive behavior support strategies and encourage reduced reliance on exclusionary discipline strategies in order to enhance the school climate and conditions for learning.     

Preventing School Bullying: Investigation of the Link between Anti‐Bullying Strategies,Prevention Ownership,Prevention Climate,and Prevention Leadership

School bullying has been a major health and safety concern for teachers and students, which calls for effective strategies to address the issue. In this study, we explored individual and organisational factors that improve the effects of teachers’ use of anti‐bullying strategies in reducing or preventing student bullying. Specifically, we examined the moderating role of teachers’ psychological ownership of their school's anti‐bullying system in the relationship between teacher‐reported use of anti‐bullying strategies and student‐reported bullying incidents. We also investigated how principals’ bullying prevention leadership, rated by a group of directors who are the immediate subordinates of these principals, inspires teachers’ psychological ownership of their school's anti‐bullying system through building teachers’ shared perceptions of a bullying prevention climate. Results of multilevel analyses of multisource data from 2,123 teachers, 407 directors, and 15,967 students in 110 junior and senior high schools indicated that the impact of teacher‐reported use of anti‐bullying strategies on student‐reported bullying incidents was strengthened when teachers have a high level of psychological ownership of their school's anti‐bullying system. Further, principals’ bullying prevention leadership was significantly positively related to teachers’ psychological ownership of their school's anti‐bullying system through teachers’ shared perceptions of a bullying prevention climate.     

大学生学习体验与学习结果的关系：学生投入的中介作用

选取3063名大学二年级本科生（平均年龄19.76 ± 0.73岁）为被试,考察大学生投入在学习体验（课堂学习体验和课外学习体验）和学习结果（学业成就、共通能力和学习满意度）间的中介作用。结果发现：（1）大学生投入在学习体验和学业成就间起部分中介作用;（2）大学生投入在学习体验和共通能力间起完全中介作用;（3）大学生投入在学习体验和满意度间起部分中介作用。