Effects of Practice Variability on Unimanual Arm Rotation

High variability practice has been found to lead to a higher rate of motor learning than low variability practice in sports tasks. The authors compared the effects of low and high levels of practice variability on a simple unimanual arm rotation task. Participants performed rhythmic unimanual internal-external arm rotation as smoothly as possible before and after 2 weeks of low (LV) or high (HV) variability practice and after a 2-week retention interval. Compared to the pretest, the HV group significantly decreased hand, radioulnar, and shoulder rotation jerk on the retention test and shoulder jerk on the posttest. After training the LV group had lower radioulnar and shoulder jerk on the posttest but not the retention test. The results supported the hypothesis that high variability practice would lead to greater learning and reminiscence than low variability practice and the theoretical prediction of a bifurcation in the motor learning dynamics.     

Enhancing the Learning of Sport Skills Through External-Focus Feedback

The authors examined how the effectiveness of feedback for the learning of complex motor skills is affected by the focus of attention it induces. The feedback referred specifically either to body movements (internal focus) or to movement effects (external focus). In Experiment 1, groups of novices and advanced volleyball players (N = 48) practiced “tennis” serves under internal-focus or external-focus feedback conditions in a 2 (expertise) × 2 (feedback type) design. Type of feedback did not differentially affect movement quality, but external-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy of the serves than internal-focus feedback during both practice and retention, independent of the level of expertise. In Experiment 2, the effects of relative feedback frequency as a function of attentional focus were examined. A 2 (feedback frequency: 100% vs. 33%) × 2 (feedback type) design was used. Experienced soccer players (N = 52) were required to shoot lofted passes at a target. External-focus feedback resulted in greater accuracy than internal-focus feedback did. In addition, reduced feedback frequency was beneficial under internal-focus feedback conditions, whereas 100% and 33% feedback were equally effective under external-focus conditions. The results demonstrate the effectiveness of effect-related, as opposed to movement-related, feedback and also suggest that there is a need to revise current views regarding the role of feedback for motor learning.     

Average KR schedule in learning of timing: influence of length for summary knowledge of results and task complexity

This experiment investigated the influence of length for average Knowledge of Results (KR) and task complexity on learning of timing in a barrier knock-down task. Participants (30 men and 30 women) attempted to press a goal button in 1200 msec. after pressing a start button. The participant was assigned into one of six groups by two tasks (simple and complex) and three feedback groups (100% KR, Average 3, Average 5). The simple and complex tasks required a participant to knock down one or three barriers before pressing a goal button. After a pretest without KR, participants practiced 60 trials of physical practice with one of the three following groups as a practice phase: one given the result of movement time after every trial (100% KR), a second given the average movement time after every third trial (Average 3), a third given the average movement time after every fifth trial (Average 5). Participants then performed a posttest with no-KR and two retention tests, taken 10 min. and 24 hr. after the posttest without KR. Analysis gave several findings. (1) On the complex task, the absolute constant error (/CE/) and the variable error (VE) were less than those on the simple task. (2) The /CE/ and the VE of the 100% KR and the Average 3 groups were less than those of the Average 5 group in the practice phase, and the VE of the 100% KR and the Average 3 group were less than those of the Average 5 group on the retention tests. (3) In the practice phase, the /CE/ and the VE on Blocks 1 and 2 were higher than on Blocks 5 and 6. (4) On the retention tests, the /CE/ of the posttest was less than retention tests 1 and 2. And, the VE of the 100% KR and the Average 3 groups were less than that of the Average 5 group. These results suggest that the average feedback length of three trials and the given feedback information after every trial are advantageous to learning timing on this barrier knock-down task.     

Reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results without visual feedback in learning a golf-putting task

This study examined the effects of reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results (KR) on learning to putt in golf. Participants (19 men and 15 women) putted a golf ball, stopping the ball on a line at a distance of 3.5 m from the starting position, which included an uphill portion. After a pretest, participants were assigned as they arrived in balanced order by sex to one of two groups (100% KR, 33% KR) and practiced 60 trials. Those in the 100% KR group performed the task in its natural context, while others assigned to the 33% KR were shown the location of the putted ball after every third trial. All participants then performed a posttest and two retention tests, done 10 min. and 24 hr. after the posttest. Analysis at posttest showed each group had a constant error and an absolute constant error (/CE/) less than those at pretest. Also, in the retention test conducted the following day, the constant error of the 33% KR group was less than that of the 100% KR group. Third, in the posttest and both retention tests, the /CE/ of the 100% KR group was larger than that of the 33% KR group. These results suggest that reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results is effective in learning the accuracy of the golf putt.     

The role of movement speed in learning a visuo-manual coordination in children

Summary The aim of the present study was to investigate the processes underlying aiming movements (motor programming and feedback control), and to explore their modification through learning. Two groups of 6- and 9-year-old children were asked to perform a directional aiming task without visual feedback (open-loop situation). After 15 trials (pretest) all subjects were submitted to a practice session which consisted of three series of trials with visual feedback (closed-loop situation). Half of the subjects had to perform the task at maximum speed (programmed movements), while the other half was required to perform slow movements (feedback-controlled movements). After the practice session all subjects were tested again in the openloop situation without time constraints (posttest). The results showed that during the practice session, accuracy was greater than in the two test conditions. It was greater in the case of slow movements than in the case of rapid ones. Moreover, in the case of rapid movements, it did not improve over the three practice series, while it did improve with slow movements. The difference between pre- and posttests showed that both groups improved their accuracy with practice in all conditions, the greatest improvement being obtained with rapid practice movements in 9-year-old children. It is suggested that different types of feedback (on-line and delayed feedback) contribute in varying degrees to the improvement of the aiming movements. However, the rapid movement condition, which requires a greater efficiency of programming, was found to be more effective for learning than the slow movement condition. The age-related differences found in learning suggest that feedback information can be fully integrated into motor programming only after 6 years of age.     

Effects of normative feedback on motor learning are dependent on the frequency of knowledge of results

Studies on normative feedback have shown superior motor learning outcomes for individuals who believe that they are performing better than others through increased self-efficacy. Nevertheless, the effects of normative feedback were never dissociated from the knowledge of results (KR) provided to the learners which potentially interacts with self-efficacy as well. Thus, we investigated whether the effects of normative feedback on motor learning, associated with self-efficacy, would be dependent on the amount of KR provided. Fifty-six participants were randomly assigned to four experimental groups in terms of KR frequency (100% and 33%) and normative feedback (positive and negative). In the acquisition phase, all groups received the average KR of their performance at the end of each block of trials (True feedback) and a fake KR based on their own performance (but said to be from a group of participants who practiced the same task) (False Feedback). The False Feedback indicated better or worse performance of the participant in comparison to the fake group, depending on their experimental group. Retention tests were performed immediately and after 24 h from the acquisition phase. To measure self-efficacy, a questionnaire on participant's efficacy was applied before the first block, after each block of trials and before the retention tests. The results revealed superiority of positive normative feedback and 100% KR frequency, compared to negative normative feedback and 100% KR frequency in the 24h retention test. No difference was found between the groups with a frequency of 33% of KR (positive and negative). All groups increased self-efficacy during practice, but there was no difference between groups at any stage of the study. We conclude that the effects of normative feedback on motor learning are dependent on the KR frequency. However, they were not associated with self-efficacy.     

OPTIMAL practice conditions enhance the benefits of gradually increasing error opportunities on retention of a stepping sequence task

IntroductionPhysical therapists should implement practice conditions that promote motor skill learning after neurological injury. Errorful and errorless practice conditions are effective for different populations and tasks. Errorful learning provides opportunities for learners to make task-relevant choices. Enhancing learner autonomy through choice opportunities is a key component of the Optimizing Performance through Intrinsic Motivation and Attention for Learning (OPTIMAL) theory of motor learning. The objective of this study was to evaluate the interaction between error opportunity frequency and OPTIMAL (autonomy-supportive) practice conditions during stepping sequence acquisition in a virtual environment.MethodsForty healthy young adults were randomized to autonomy-supportive or autonomy-controlling practice conditions, which differed in instructional language, focus of attention (external vs internal) and positive versus negative nature of verbal and visual feedback. All participants practiced 40 trials of 4, six-step stepping sequences in a random order. Each of the 4 sequences offered different amounts of choice opportunities about the next step via visual cue presentation (4 choices; 1 choice; gradually increasing [1-2-3-4] choices, and gradually decreasing [4-3-2-1] choices). Motivation and engagement were measured by the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI) and the User Engagement Scale (UES). Participants returned 1–3 days later for retention tests, where learning was measured by time to complete each sequence. No choice cues were offered on retention.ResultsParticipants in the autonomy-supportive group outperformed the autonomy-controlling group at retention on all sequences (mean difference 2.88s, p < .005, t[6835] = 3.42). Participants in both groups had the most difficulty acquiring the decreasing choice (4-3-2-1) sequence (p < .001, t[6835] = −4.26) and performed most poorly on the errorful (4 choice) sequence (p < .034, t[6835] = 2.65) at retention. Participants in the autonomy-supportive group performed best at retention on the increasing choice (1-2-3-4) sequence (p < .033, t[6835] = −2.7). Participants in both groups who reported greater attention to the task on the UES Average Focused Attention subscale during acquisition had poorer retention performance, particularly for the decreasing choice (4-3-2-1) sequence (p < .005, t(6835) = 3.39). Participants in the autonomy-supportive group reported significantly higher overall motivation (p = .007, t(38) = 0.728, d = 0.248) on the IMI as compared to the autonomy-controlling group.ConclusionIndividual benefits of errorless learning and autonomy-supportive practice conditions, with an interaction effect for practice that begins errorless but adds increasing error opportunities over time, suggest that participants relied on implicit learning strategies for this full body task and that feedback about successes minimized errors and reduced their potential information-processing benefits. Subsequent work will continue to examine how assigning a positive versus a negative quality to error provision influences the benefits of errorful learning in a variety of tasks.     

The Constancy of the Stanford-Binet IQ from Three to Five Years

Kindergarten and first-grade children giving nonintentional moral judgments were divided into three equated groups (Ns = 6), in each of two studies. Two groups performed with models (adult or peer) giving intentionality responses, with the third a control. During training, three Ss and three models in a group performing alternately were given social reinforcement for intentionality responses to Piaget-type stories. On an immediate posttest, both training groups in each study showed significant intentionality response gains from pretest and significantly exceeded their control group (ps < .05), while not differing significantly from each other. In study #2, a delayed posttest showed similar training durability for both training groups; both increased nonsignificantly in intentionality responses, continuing to exceed the controls (ps < .05).     

Increased Sensitivity to Changes in Visual Feedback With Practice

In recent work investigating motor learning, the focus has been on the effect of modifying feedback at different levels of learning. Results suggest that learning is specific to the practiced conditions and that this specificity increases with practice. In a replication and extension of this previous work, 3 groups (N = 30 subjects) practiced a sequential positioning movement: Controls performed 300 trials with visually presented on-line kinematic feedback, whereas the other 2 groups, low practice (LP) or high practice (HP), performed, respectively, 50 or 300 trials without feedback. Pretest and posttest sessions of 10 trials each were performed with the on-line feedback. All groups improved with practice. It was apparent that the HP group exhibited more of a performance decrement in the postest than the LP group did, suggesting that motor learning is the process of forming an increasingly specific sensorimotor representation. These results have implications for motor learning paradigms, models of motor learning, and training.     

How to improve movement execution in sidestep cutting? Involve me and I will learn

Providing choices, i.e., autonomy, to athletes during practice increases intrinsic motivation and positively influences the motor learning process. The effects of autonomy on the timing of feedback (self-controlled timing of feedback) when optimizing the movement execution of sidestep cutting (SSC), a task that is highly related with ACL injury risk, are unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of self-controlled timing of video and EF-feedback on movement execution of SSC in team sport athletes. Thirty healthy ball team sport athletes (22.9 ± 1.7 years, 185.5 ± 7.2 cm, 79.3 ± 9.2 kg) were recruited from local sports clubs. Participants were alternately assigned to the self-control (SC) or the yoked (YK) group based on arrival and performed five anticipated and five unanticipated 45° SSC trials as pre-, immediate-post and one-week retention test. Movement execution was measured with the Cutting Movement Assessment Score (CMAS). Training consisted of three randomized 45° SSC conditions: one anticipated and two unanticipated conditions. All participants received expert video instructions and were instructed to ‘try to do your best in copying the movement of the expert’. The SC group was allowed to request feedback whenever they wanted during training. The feedback consisted of 1) CMAS score, 2) posterior and sagittal videos of the last trial and 3) an external focus verbal cue on how to improve their execution. The participants were told to lower their score and they knew the lower the score, the better. The YK group received feedback after the same trial on which their matched participant in the SC group had requested feedback. Data of twenty-two participants (50% in SC group) was analyzed. Pre-test and training CMAS scores between groups were equal (p > 0.05). In the anticipated condition, the SC group (1.7 ± 0.9) had better CMAS scores than the YK group (2.4 ± 1.1) at the retention test (p < 0.001). Additionally, in the anticipated condition, the SC group showed improved movement execution during immediate-post (2.0 ± 1.1) compared to pre-test (3.0 ± 1.0), which was maintained during retention (p < 0.001). The YK group also improved in the anticipated condition during immediate-post (1.8 ± 1.1) compared to pre-test (2.6 ± 1.0) (p < 0.001) but showed decreased movement execution during retention compared to immediate-post test (p = 0.001). In conclusion, self-controlled timing of feedback resulted in better learning and greater improvements in movement execution compared to the control group in the anticipated condition. Self-controlled timing of feedback seems beneficial in optimizing movement execution in SSC and is advised to be implemented in ACL injury prevention programs.     

Frequency and pattern of voluntary pedalling is influenced after one week of heavy strength training

Changes in voluntary rhythmic leg movement characteristics of freely chosen cadence (reflecting movement frequency) and tangential pedal force profile (reflecting movement pattern) were investigated during 4 weeks of (i) heavy hip extension strength training (HET, n = 9), (ii) heavy hip flexion strength training (HFT, n = 9), and (iii) no intervention (CON, n = 9). Training consisted of three 5RM–10RM sets per session, with two sessions/week. Submaximal ergometer cycling was performed before the training period (pretest) and after every week of training (test A1, A2, A3, and posttest). Strength increased by on average 25% in HET and 33% in HFT. Freely chosen cadence was only changed in HET, occurring already after 1 week of training. Thus, percentage reductions of cadence in HET at test A1, A2, A3, and posttest, with respect to the pretest value, amounted for maximally on average 17%, or 14 rpm, and were larger than the corresponding changes in CON (p = .037). Percentage increases in minimum tangential pedal force in HET at test A1, A2, A3, and posttest, with respect to the pretest value, were larger than the corresponding changes in CON (p = .024). Heavy hip flexion strength training did not cause such alterations.     

The Effects of Weight Loss Attempts, Exercise Initiation, and Dietary Practices on Health Related Quality of Life

This study (N = 98) randomly placed participants in either a higher protein or American Heart Association diet group with each group initiating an aerobic exercise program. Body composition (BC) was measured using four different methodologies (DEXA, BIA, skinfold, BMI) along with height and weight, while Health-Related Quality of Life (HRQOL) changes were measured using the Medical Outcomes Short Form 36 (SF-36). There were no significant time/diet interactions in HRQOL scores, body fat measures, and weight with the exception of Role-Physical scores (p = .006) with posttest scores higher in participants in Diet 1. Role-Physical scores changed significantly in participants in Diet 1 (p = .0001) and Diet 2 (p = .026) with higher posttest scores in each group. Social functioning had a significant main effect for time in both groups with pretest scores in both diet groups lower than their respective posttest scores (p = .015). HRQOL pretest scores were not significantly different between groups at baseline (p = .56). ANOVA revealed no significant differences in average calories between groups (p = .88). Analysis revealed no differences in exercise in minutes (p = .66) nor statistically significant changes in BC or weight (p = .65). Conclusions: Improvements in HRQOL were demonstrated in two subscales related to physiological and psychological functioning. These novel findings add to literature suggesting that HRQOL, at least concerning social functioning, work and other daily activities (Role-Physical) may improve by initiating an exercise and dietary program even when weight loss or BC improvements have been unsuccessful.     

Reducing Knowledge of Results about Relative versus Absolute Timing: Differential Effects on Learning

The purpose of the present experiment was to examine further earlier suggestions that a reduced relative frequency of knowledge of results (KR) can enhance the learning of generalized motor programs (GMPs) but at the same time degrade parameter learning, compared with giving KR after every trial (Wulf & Schmidt, 1989; Wulf, Schmidt, & Deubel, 1993). In contrast to these earlier studies, here KR was given separately for relative timing and absolute timing. Subjects practiced three movement patterns that required the same relative timing but different absolute movement times. KR was provided on 100% or 50% of the practice trials for relative timing or absolute timing, respectively. In retention and transfer tests, the groups that had had 50% KR about relative timing demonstrated more effective learning of the relative-timing structure, that is, GMP learning, than the groups that had had 100% KR about relative timing. The KR frequency had no effect on parameterization during retention; yet, when transfer to a task with a novel overall duration was required, the groups given 100% KR about absolute timing were more accurate in parameterization than the groups provided with 50% KR about absolute timing. Thus, the reduced relative KR frequency enhanced GMP learning but had no beneficial effect, or even a degrading effect, on parameter learning. The differential effects of a reduced KR frequency on the learning of relative timing and absolute timing also provide additional support for the dissociation of GMP and parameterization processes.     

Potentiating ballistic limb movements through voluntary production of the stretch-shorten cycle.

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of learning to produce voluntarily a basic biomechanical mechanism, the stretch-shorten cycle (SSC), on the acceleration of a ballistic arm movement. The task required an elbow flexion at maximal effort performed with the forearm resting upon a horizontal manipulandum. Subjects in three groups received either no augmented feedback, feedback concerning the velocity of the flexion, or a combination of feedback on velocity and feedback related to the rate of stretch of the SSC during 80 training trials. The training trials were preceded by a pretest and followed by a posttest without feedback. Analyses showed that the subjects receiving feedback concerning the SSC exhibited earlier and greater peak angular acceleration than the other groups. These findings provide evidence that acquiring the control of relevant, basic mechanisms like the SSC may be useful in facilitating tasks requiring limb movements of maximal effort.     

The Effects of a PETTLEP Imagery Intervention on Learners' Coincident Anticipation Timing Performance

Little research has examined how imagery effects learners' acquisition of motor tasks requiring coincident anticipation timing (CAT). CAT is a fundamental component of hitting, passing, and receiving required in several sports. The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of a PETTLEP imagery intervention on learners' CAT performance using a Bassin Anticipation Timer. Fifty-six participants (M = 20.61 years, SD = 2.48) were randomly assigned into one of four training groups: physical practice (PP), imagery practice (IP), imagery practice + physical practice (IP +PP), or a control (CON) group. The study consisted of three phases: pretest, intervention, and a posttest. Results revealed that the PP and IP+PP groups had significantly lower absolute timing error compared to the CON group on the posttest. The IP+PP group was the only group to have lower variable error compared to the CON group on the posttest. Results extend prior research by demonstrating that imagery combined with physical practice can benefit the learning of a CAT task and that imagery alone may not assist learners in acquiring tasks requiring CAT. Results are congruent with prior research demonstrating that imagery is most effective when combined with physical practice.     

Meta-analysis of the reduced relative feedback frequency effect on motor learning and performance

A fundamental motor learning principle conveyed in textbooks is that augmented terminal feedback frequency differentially affects motor learning and performance. The guidance hypothesis predicts that relative to a reduced frequency of feedback, providing learners with feedback following every practice trial enhances practice performance but degrades subsequent motor learning. This change in effectiveness for each relative feedback frequency is called a reversal effect, and because it is thought that practice variables can have distinct impacts on learning and performance, delayed retention tests are considered the gold standard in motor learning research. The objectives of this meta-analysis were to a) synthesize the available evidence regarding feedback frequency, performance, and motor learning to test whether there are significant changes in effectiveness from acquisition and immediate retention to delayed retention, b) evaluate potential moderators of these effects, and c) investigate the potential influence of publication bias on this literature. We screened 1662 articles found in PubMed and PsycINFO databases as well as with reference tracing and a targeted author search. A final sample of 61 eligible papers were included in the primary analysis (k = 75, N = 2228). Results revealed substantial heterogeneity but no significant moderators, high levels of uncertainty, and no significant effect of reduced feedback frequency at any time point. Further, multilevel analyses revealed no evidence of a significant change in effect from acquisition or immediate retention to delayed retention. Z-curve analysis suggested the included studies were severely underpowered. These results suggest that robust evidence regarding feedback frequency and motor learning is lacking.     

Effectiveness of Acceptance–Commitment Therapy on Craving Beliefs in Patients on Methadone Maintenance Therapy: A Pilot Study

The present study is designed to evaluate the efficacy of acceptance–commitment therapy (ACT) on craving beliefs in opioid dependent patients on methadone maintenance treatment (MMT). Twenty-eight opioid dependent participants, aged 18–50 years, who were on MMT based on Iran’s Ministry of Health and Medical Education published protocol, were evaluated in Mashhad during 2011–2012. The treatment group comprised fourteen participants, who received eight sessions of individual ACT alongside MMT while fourteen participants of the control group received just MMT. The effectiveness of the intervention was assessed by the craving beliefs questionnaire (CBQ), the action and acceptance questionnaire (AAQ-I) and the mean dosage of methadone the participants consumed in the last 3 days. Assessment was performed three times; the first was before the initiation of ACT (as pretest), the second was 2 weeks after ACT was terminated (as posttest), and the third one was 12 weeks after the termination of ACT (as follow-up). The extracted data were analyzed by two way ANOVA and ANCOVA using SPSS-20. While there was no significant difference in the mean methadone dosage between the treatment and the control group at pretest (p = 0.067), patients in the treatment group had a significantly lower methadone dosage at posttest (p < 0.001) and follow-up (p < 0.001) compared to the control group. There was a significant reduction in the CBQ scores between treatment and control groups at posttest (p = 0.047) and follow-up (p = 0.014). There was also a significant difference in AAQ-I score between treatment and control at posttest (p < 0.001) and follow-up (p < 0.001). It seems that short-term individual ACT is associated with a significant decline in craving beliefs in substance-dependent patients, which lasts for at least 12 weeks after the termination of ACT.     

Does exercise-induced muscle damage impair subsequent motor skill learning?

Motor skill learning is a fundamental aspect of human behavior based on the calibration of internal models via sensory information such as proprioception. Some conditions, as exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD), disrupt proprioceptive information, and may cause learning impairment. Such possible relation between EIMD and motor skill learning has not yet been investigated and it is the aim of this study. For this purpose, thirty male university students (19.3 ± 1.8 years) were equally assigned to two groups: EIMD and CON group. The EIMD group received a treatment to induce muscle damage consisting of a weight lifting protocol directed to the agonist muscles related to the task prior to the pretest and to the learning sessions. EIMD was verified and compared between groups and along the process (0–168 h) by means of the degree of delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), perceived total quality recovery and maximal isometric strength (MIS). To investigate motor skill learning, both groups practiced a dart throwing task for four sessions with 150 trials in each session. Recovery status and DOMS were recovered at 96 h in the EIMD group, and MIS was not recovered throughout 168 h. In contrast, muscle damage parameters were not altered across 168 h in the CON group. Accuracy and consistency were compared within and between groups in a pretest posttest design. The EIMD group showed less accurate and consistent results on the long term (delayed posttest). Results confirmed our hypothesis that EIMD, a common condition in sports and in rehab practices, may hinder motor skill learning, possibly due to neurological aspects such as proprioceptive information, its relation to central nervous system reorganization and internal model consolidation.     

Does Narrative Feedback Enhance Children's Motor Learning in a Virtual Environment?

Augmented feedback has motivational and informational functions in motor learning, and is a key feature of practice in a virtual environment (VE). This study evaluated the impact of narrative (story-based) feedback as compared to standard feedback during practice of a novel task in a VE on typically developing children's motor learning, motivation and engagement. Thirty-eight children practiced navigating through a virtual path, receiving narrative or non-narrative feedback following each trial. All participants improved their performance on retention but not transfer, with no significant differences between groups. Self-reported engagement was associated with acquisition, retention and transfer for both groups. A narrative approach to feedback delivery did not offer an additive benefit; additional affective advantages of augmented feedback for motor learning in VEs should be explored.     

Positive social-comparative feedback enhances motor learning in children

ObjectivesThe present study investigated the influence of social-comparative feedback on the learning of a throwing task in 10-year-old children.DesignTwo-group experimental design, including a practice phase and retention test.MethodBoth groups of participants, a positive social-comparative feedback and a control group, received veridical feedback about their performance (accuracy score) after each practice trial. In addition, after each block of 10 trials, the positive feedback group was given bogus feedback suggesting that their own performance was better than that of a peer group's on that block. One day after the practice phase, a retention test without (veridical or social-comparative) feedback was performed to assess learning effects as a function of feedback.ResultsThe positive feedback group demonstrated greater throwing accuracy than the control group on the retention test. In addition, questionnaire results indicated that this group scored higher in terms of perceived competence than the control group.ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate that feedback can have an important motivational function that affects the learning of motor skills in children.