Measuring Psychological Development With the Rorschach

The aim of this study was to develop and to provide an initial validation of a Rorschach index measuring developmental progress and growth. The Developmental Index (DI) was created in a 3-step, sequential strategy with adult and child data in which we (a) selected potential DI variables from quantitative research literature and from data available to us, (b) identified an optimal group of DI variables and created the DI equation using an independent nonpatient sample, and (c) provided an initial cross-validation of the DI using an independent clinical sample. Age and age rank categorization groups from normative data associated with the Wechsler intelligence scales (Wechsler, 2003, 2008) and contrasts between adults and children served as criteria for development. These samples include a large amount of data from a diverse international subject pool using the Comprehensive System of the Rorschach. Interim validity checks were undertaken to ensure the analytic strategy was sound. The DI includes 12 variables with individual weights determined by regression analysis. The initial independent cross-validation of the DI with a clinical sample revealed that it discriminated well between children and adults. Thus, initial support for this scale as a measure of psychological development across cultures and geography was established, but future research is needed. Clinical implications and specific research needs are presented.     

Who Are the Children Most Vulnerable to Social Exclusion? The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem,Popularity, and Nonverbal Intelligence on Cognitive Performance Following Social Exclusion

Social exclusion has a profound emotional impact on children. However, there is still limited and partly conflicting experimental evidence for the possible effect of social exclusion on children’s cognitive performance. In the present study, we tested the possibility that some children are more vulnerable than others to the negative effects of social exclusion on cognitive performance. We selected 4 potential candidates that could moderate the effects of social exclusion: relational self-esteem, peer ratings of popularity, rejection sensitivity and nonverbal intelligence. Individual differences in these 4 potential moderating factors were first assessed in a sample of 318 children (45.6 % females; mean age = 9.92 years). Then, in a subsequent experimental session, the participants were either socially included or excluded using a typical manipulation (i.e., the Cyberball paradigm). Following the manipulation, the children’s cognitive performance was assessed using a logical reasoning test. The results showed that the children with lower scores for relational self-esteem (the bottom 37.46 % of the sample), lower popularity (43.49 %) or weaker nonverbal intelligence (37.80 %) performed worse on the logical reasoning test following social exclusion. Moreover, children with combined low self-esteem, popularity and nonverbal intelligence were the most affected by social exclusion. This study identified factors that make some children more vulnerable to the negative effects of social exclusion. Overall, the present work underscores the value of considering basic cognitive and relational individual differences when developing interventions aimed at preventing the negative effects of social exclusion among children.     

Relation of infant motor development with nonverbal intelligence,language comprehension and neuropsychological functioning in childhood: a population‐based study

Within a population‐based study of 3356 children, we investigated whether infant neuromotor development was associated with cognition in early childhood. Neuromotor development was examined with an adapted version of Touwen's Neurodevelopmental Examination between 9 and 20 weeks. Parents rated their children's executive functioning at 4 years. At age 6 years, children performed intelligence and language comprehension tests, using Dutch test batteries. At age 6–9 years, neuropsychological functioning was assessed in 486 children using the validated NEPSY‐II–NL test battery. We showed that less optimal neurodevelopment in infancy may predict poor mental rotation, immediate memory, shifting, and planning; but not nonverbal intelligence or language comprehension.     

Independent effects of bilingualism and socioeconomic status on language ability and executive functioning

One hundred and seventy-five children who were 6-years old were assigned to one of four groups that differed in socioeconomic status (SES; working class or middle class) and language background (monolingual or bilingual). The children completed tests of nonverbal intelligence, language tests assessing receptive vocabulary and attention based on picture naming, and two tests of executive functioning. All children performed equivalently on the basic intelligence tests, but performance on the language and executive functioning tasks was influenced by both SES and bilingualism. Middle-class children outperformed working-class children on all measures, and bilingual children obtained lower scores than monolingual children on language tests but higher scores than monolingual children on the executive functioning tasks. There were no interactions with either group factors or task factors. Thus, each of SES and bilingualism contribute significantly and independently to children’s development irrespective of the child’s level on the other factor.     

Family size and intelligence revisited: the role of emotional intelligence.

Studies examining the link between family size and intelligence have consistently found a negative relationship. Children born into larger families tend to score lower on intelligence tests than children raised in smaller families. One recurrent but unexplained finding is that the relation between intelligence and number of siblings is consistently significant for verbal intelligence but inconsistent for nonverbal intelligence. Here, we conceptualize emotional intelligence as one facet of nonverbal intelligence. The research develops a measure of emotional intelligence and uses it to test the hypothesis that emotional intelligence is positively correlated with family size. The results, based upon a sample of graduate students, support the hypothesized relationship. Implications for the study of family size and intelligence, for refining the conceptualizations and measures of nonverbal intelligence, and for leadership theory, are discussed.     

Verbal and nonverbal predictors of executive function in early childhood

The study of executive function (EF) has become increasingly popular in multiple areas of research. A wealth of evidence has supported the value of EF in shaping notable outcomes across typical and atypical development; however, little evidence has supported the cognitive contributors to early EF development. The current study used data from a large longitudinal sample of healthy children to investigate the differential influence of verbal and nonverbal cognition on later EF. Participants were assessed at 2 years of age using the Mullen Scales of Early Learning, and Mullen scores were used to calculate nonverbal and verbal developmental quotients. Executive function was measured at 6 years using assessments from the Stanford-Binet, Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery, and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Results suggested that early nonverbal cognition was a better predictor of 6-year EF as measured by task-based laboratory assessments, whereas verbal cognition was a better predictor of parent-reported EF. Findings are discussed in regard to EF development and characteristics of EF measurement.     

The psychometric attributes of Furth's nonverbal conservation test

The study examined the suitability of Furth's nonverbal conservation test as a psychometric tool for measuring individual differences in Zambia. The subjects included normal and mentally deficient Zambian children aged 7–13 years. The test was validated against age differentiation, differentiation of different intellectual levels, and school performance. The results showed that scores on the test increased significantly with increase in age, correlated positively and significantly with school scores, and differentiated normal from mentally deficient children. Within the normal sample the test also differentiated dull from average children; within the deficient sample the test did not differentiate the moderately mentally deficient from the severely mentally deficient. These results are explained by reference to the characteristics of the test, performance on which requires learning, memory, and perceptual abilities.     

Marital status and reproduction: Associations with childhood intelligence and adult social class in the Aberdeen children of the 1950s study

Childhood intelligence (age 11) and occupational social status at midlife (age 46 to 51) was associated with marital status and reproduction in a sample from the Aberdeen Children of the 1950s cohort study (N = 9614).Male and female divorcees had lower childhood intelligence test scores than their married counterparts, but no meaningful difference was found between ever- and never-married individuals. Lower occupational social status increased the odds of being never-married, divorced, separated or widowed compared to being married by 53% to 26% in men (N = 2716) but not in women (N = 2920). Higher intelligence scores were associated with being married rather than divorced at midlife with odds ratios (OR) of 0.86 (Confidence Interval of 95% of 0.76 to 0.99) in men, and 0.87 (0.77 to 0.98) in women.In men, lower intelligence predicted having offspring (0.69; 0.59 to 0.81), while in women, higher occupational status was associated with lower odds of having children (0.66; 0.55 to 0.76). An interaction term showed that high intelligence women remained childless in the top occupational classes but, in the lower social groups, mothers were more intelligent than their childless peers. Intelligence or occupational status were not associated with the number of offspring in both sexes.     

Parent-reported executive functioning in young children treated for cancer

It is well known that children treated for cancer are at risk for cognitive and functional impairments. Such research is largely based on studies of late effects in school-aged or older children. However, far less is known about executive function weaknesses in preschool-aged children treated for cancer. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine executive functioning in a clinically referred sample of young oncology patients, and its association with broader domains of functioning. Data from 61 young children with cancer, who were referred for clinical cognitive evaluations, were abstracted and included in this study. Patients were 5.00 years of age (SD = 0.72) at assessment, 54.1% male, and two-thirds (63.9%) had been treated for brain tumors. Most executive functions were significantly discrepant from the mean, with 47.5% of preschoolers having parent-reported working memory concerns within the clinically significant range. There were no differences in executive functioning based on diagnosis or treatment status. Parent-reported executive functioning was strongly correlated with global intelligence and adaptive functioning, with some indices also associated with nonverbal problem solving and pre-academic skills. Ultimately, results indicate the presence of emerging weaknesses in executive functioning in young children with cancer, and add to a growing body of literature highlighting the potential cognitive and behavioral risks associated with a cancer diagnosis in early childhood.     

Multivariate base rates for the assessment of executive functioning among children and adolescents

This study provides observed base rates of low executive functioning test scores among healthy children and adolescents, stratifies those base rates by narrow intellectual functioning and age groupings, and provides normative classification ranges to aid the interpretation of performances on the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) in clinical practice and research. Participants included 875 children and adolescents between 8 and 19 years old from the D-KEFS normative sample (48% male; 52% female). Among these participants, 838 had complete data and were included in the current study. The racial/ethnic composition of the sample was: White (73.7%), African American (12.4%), Hispanic (11.1%), and other racial/ethnic backgrounds (2.7%). The Overall Test Battery Mean (OTBM) and the prevalence of low scores at various clinical cut-offs were calculated for the 13 primary scores from the D-KEFS Trail Making Test, Verbal Fluency Test, and Color-Word Interference Test. The OTBM and base rates were also calculated separately for those scores reflecting executive functioning (n = 7) and processing speed (n = 6). Healthy children and adolescents commonly obtained low scores on the D-KEFS tests considered here. Younger age, lower estimated full-scale intelligence quotient, and more test scores interpreted were associated with a greater frequency of low scores. Clinicians and researchers are encouraged to consider these multivariate base rates when assessing and attempting to identify executive functioning impairment among children and adolescents with the D-KEFS.     

An analysis of diversity in the cognitive performance of elderly community dwellers: individual differences in change scores as a function of age.

This longitudinal study investigated whether age is associated with increases in interindividual variability across 4 ability domains using a sample of 426 elderly community dwellers followed over 3.5 years. Interindividual variability in change scores increased with age for memory, spatial functioning, and speed but not for crystallized intelligence for the full sample and in a subsample that excluded dementia or probable dementia cases. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that being female, having weaker muscle strength, and having greater symptoms of illness and greater depression were associated with overall greater variability in cognitive scores. Having a higher level of education was associated with reduced variability. These findings are consistent with the view that there is a greater range of responses at older ages, that certain domains of intelligence are less susceptible to variation than others and that variables other than age affect cognitive performance in later life.     

L’attachement chez les enfants institutionnalisés : une recension narrative et méta-analytique des études sur les facteurs de risque

IntroductionInstitutional conditions are deleterious for child development (Browne, 2009). In particular, at a socioemotional level, a high proportion of institutionalized children develop an insecure-disorganized attachment (van IJzendoorn & Bakermans-Kranenburg, 2009). However, little is known about the risk factors associated with the development of disorganized attachment behavior among children living in institutions.ObjectiveA narrative and meta-analytic review is conducted to identify such risk factors.MethodAll studies reporting valid attachment scores of institutionalized children during infancy (between the ages of 1 and 5) were selected. A total of 16 published studies, out of 9 different research projects, conducted in various countries were found.ResultsOverall results show that structural factors are associated to higher levels of disorganized attachment. The accumulation of risk factors or their interaction are suggested as potential processes explaining insecure attachments in institutional settings.ConclusionResearch questions are suggested for future work.     

Dietary patterns and intelligence in early and middle childhood

The association between intelligence and diet at 3.5 and 7 years was examined in 591 children of European descent. Approximately half of the children were born small-for-gestational age (birth weight ≤ 10th percentile). The relationship between IQ and diet (measured by food frequency) was investigated using multiple regression analyses. Eating margarine at least daily was associated with significantly lower IQ scores at 3.5 years in the total sample and at 7 years in SGA children. For all children, eating the recommended daily number of breads and cereals was associated with significantly higher IQ scores at 3.5 years, and those who ate fish at least weekly had significantly higher IQ scores at 7 years than those who did not. The consumption of fish, breads and cereals commeasurable with nutritional guidelines may be beneficial to children's cognitive development. In contrast, consuming margarine daily was associated with poorer cognitive functioning. Further research is needed to identify the nutrients that may underlie this association.     

Cognitive Development of Lead Exposed Children from Ages 6 to 15 Years: An Application of Growth Curve Analysis

The effect of lead exposure on cognitive growth patterns was assessed in a longitudinal study of 196 children. Performances on tests of verbal comprehension and perceptual organization (Vocabulary & Block Design, Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children) were measured at ages 6.5, 11 and 15 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that the quadratic model best described the relationship between test scores and age. Children with higher lead levels, as measured at age 15 years, demonstrated lower verbal comprehension scores over time and greater decline in their rate of Vocabulary development at age 15 years, as compared to children with lower lead levels. Lead exposure was not significantly associated with growth in perceptual organization test scores. Socioeconomic status and maternal intelligence were statistically significantly associated with growth patterns for both test scores, independent of the effects of lead. The findings suggest that lead negatively impacts the developmental progression of specific cognitive skills from childhood through adolescence.     

Cognitive development of lead exposed children from ages 6 to 15 years: an application of growth curve analysis.

The effect of lead exposure on cognitive growth patterns was assessed in a longitudinal study of 196 children. Performances on tests of verbal comprehension and perceptual organization (Vocabulary & Block Design, Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children) were measured at ages 6.5, 11 and 15 years. Growth curve analyses revealed that the quadratic model best described the relationship between test scores and age. Children with higher lead levels, as measured at age 15 years, demonstrated lower verbal comprehension scores over time and greater decline in their rate of Vocabulary development at age 15 years, as compared to children with lower lead levels. Lead exposure was not significantly associated with growth in perceptual organization test scores. Socioeconomic status and maternal intelligence were statistically significantly associated with growth patterns for both test scores, independent of the effects of lead. The findings suggest that lead negatively impacts the developmental progression of specific cognitive skills from childhood through adolescence.     

The Role of Paternal Age in the Prediction of Offspring Intelligence

Recent evidence suggests that paternal age at birth influences myriad developmental outcomes among children, but few studies have examined the possibility for father's age to influence children's intellectual development among a sample of high-risk families. The authors use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study to examine the association between paternal age at birth among 480 male and 449 female children's verbal IQ scores, as assessed with a version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test at 9 years old. The nonlinear association between paternal age and children's verbal intelligence was also examined. Paternal age at birth appears to have a marginally significant nonlinear relationship with male children's verbal IQ scores, despite controlling for a number of possible confounders associated with both young and advanced paternal age.     

Age, gender, and reasons for living among Australian adults

Reasons for living have been identified as protective factors in relation to suicide, and much research has documented gender differences in reasons for living. In contrast, little research has investigated age differences in reasons for living. In the current study, the relationship of age to reasons for living was investigated, as was whether age and gender interact to influence reasons for living. A community sample of Australian adults (N = 970) aged 18 to 95 years (M = 48.40, SD = 20.85) completed the Reasons for Living Inventory. Results for the main effects indicated that being female was associated with higher total, child-related concerns and fear of suicide (FS) scores, whereas increasing age was associated with higher total, responsibility to family (RF), FS, and moral objections scores. Age and gender interacted to influence RF, FS, and fear of social disapproval. For each of these reasons for living, increasing age was associated with higher scores for men; however, there was no association between age and these reasons for living scores among women. Overall, the results indicate that the influence of age, gender, or the combination of the two varies according to the reason for living being investigated.     

Relationship Between Accuracy and Organizational Approach on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure and the Differential Ability Scales: A Pilot Investigation

The present study was designed as an initial exploration of the relationship between global cognitive functioning and organizational and accuracy scores on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) in a sample of children and adolescents. The relationship between ROCF accuracy scores at Copy and Delay as well as Organization and the Differential Ability Scales (DAS) was examined. Results indicate moderate correlations between Copy and Delay ROCF scores and various DAS indicators of nonverbal problem solving and visuospatial processing. Contrary to expectations, organizational scores were not significantly correlated with any of the DAS subscales or composite scales. Although further research is needed to explore the validity of this organizational scoring scheme with younger patients, these findings suggest that organization of the ROCF may be generally unrelated to global measures of cognitive ability or may assess processes associated with executive functioning untapped by the DAS.     

Relationship between accuracy and organizational approach on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure and the differential ability scales: a pilot investigation.

The present study was designed as an initial exploration of the relationship between global cognitive functioning and organizational and accuracy scores on the Rey-Osterrieth Complex Figure (ROCF) in a sample of children and adolescents. The relationship between ROCF accuracy scores at Copy and Delay as well as Organization and the Differential Ability Scales (DAS) was examined. Results indicate moderate correlations between Copy and Delay ROCF scores and various DAS indicators of nonverbal problem solving and visuospatial processing. Contrary to expectations, organizational scores were not significantly correlated with any of the DAS subscales or composite scales. Although further research is needed to explore the validity of this organizational scoring scheme with younger patients, these findings suggest that organization of the ROCF may be generally unrelated to global measures of cognitive ability or may assess processes associated with executive functioning untapped by the DAS.     

Cognitive and developmental influences in visual-motor integration skills in young children

Measures of visual-motor integration skills continue to be widely used in psychological assessments with children. However, the construct validity of many visual-motor integration measures remains unclear. In this study, we investigated the relative contributions of maturation and cognitive skills to the development of visual-motor integration skills in young children (N = 856). We used a block regression analysis to determine the contribution of maturation, as indicated by age, followed by broad cognitive factors (Study 1) and subsequently by individual subtests in verbal and nonverbal domains subsumed under each factor (Study 2) in explaining score variance of the Bender Visual-Motor Gestalt Test (2nd ed.; BG-II; Brannigan & Decker, 2003) Copy and Recall scores in children between the ages of 4 and 7 years. Results confirm that maturation accounted for a large proportion of variance in both BG-II Copy and Recall performance, above which Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale (5th ed.; SB-5; Roid, 2003) Quantitative Reasoning and Fluid Reasoning factors significantly contributed to visual-motor integration performance for the Copy phase, and SB-5 Quantitative Reasoning and Visual-Spatial factors accounted for a significant amount of variance for the Recall phase. Additionally, nonverbal domains were more related to visual-motor performance than verbal domains. Results from this study are interpreted to suggest nonverbal reasoning and visual-spatial attention are important contributing factors to visual-motor integration, as measured by the BG-II. Developmental implications of visual-motor integration skills, nonverbal problem solving, and mathematical competence are discussed.