An opponent-process theory of motivation: III. Some affective dynamics in imprinting

The theory suggests that for immature precocial birds, the stimulation from an appropriate imprinting object innately arouses a primary effective process that is hedonically pleasant. The occurrence of this process automatically generates (via an opponent loop system) an opponent-process which is hedonically unpleasant. When the imprinting object is withdrawn, the primary process rapidly terminates, but the opponent-process persists, unopposed, for some time. By assuming that the opponent-process becomes stronger with its repeated (or prolonged) arousal, it is possible to account for many of the motivational factors in imprinting. These include: (1) the pattern of distress vocalization that occurs when an imprinting object is first presented to and then withdrawn from newly hatched ducklings, (2) the reinforcement and punishment effects that characterize imprinting, and (3) the priming effects that occur in the context of imprinting.     

The opponent-process theory of motivation: VIII. Quantitative and qualitative manipulations of food both modulate adjunctive behavior

The present studies extend the opponent-process theory of acquired motivation to the schedule-induced polydipsia paradigm and more generally to adjunctive behavior. The theory suggests that manipulations of the quality and the size of the pellet presented on an intermittent schedule should be important modulators of polydipsia. In Experiment 1, presenting animals with preferred, less preferred, or least preferred food pellets on a fixed-time 120-sec schedule resulted in progressively lower levels of water intake. In Experiment 2, the quality and size of the pellet were manipulated factorially. These variables were found to interact in the control of both the development and maintenance of schedule-induced drinking. Thus, predictions from the opponent-process theory were supported by these findings.     

An evolutionary theory of human motivation

The authors review psychology's historical, competing perspectives on human motivation and propose a new comprehensive theory. The new theory is based on evolutionary principles as proposed by C. Darwin (1859) and modified by W. D. Hamilton (1964, 1996), R. L. Trivers (1971, 1972), and R. Dawkins (1989). The theory unifies biological, behavioral, and cognitive approaches to motivation. The theory is neuropsychological and addresses conscious and nonconscious processes that underlie motivation, emotion, and self-control. The theory predicts a hierarchical structure of motives that are measurable as individual differences in human behavior. These motives are related to social problem domains (D. B. Bugental, 2000; D. T. Kenrick, N. P. Li, & J. Butner, 2003), and each is hypothesized to solve a particular problem of human inclusive fitness.     

Induction of depressed mood: a test of opponent-process theory

Solomon's (1980) opponent-process theory of acquired motivation has been used to explain many phenomena in which affective or hedonic contrasts appear to exist, but has not been applied to the induction of depressed mood. The purpose of this study, therefore, was to determine whether opponent-process theory can be applied to this area. Velten's (1968) mood-induction procedure was used and subjects were assigned either to a depression-induction condition or to one of two control groups. Self-report measures of depressed mood were taken before, during, and at several points after the mood induction. Results were not totally consistent with a rigorous set of criteria for supporting an opponent-process interpretation. This suggests that the opponent-process model may not be applicable to induced depressed mood. Possible weaknesses in the experimental design, along with implications for opponent-process theory, are discussed.     

An application of protection motivation theory to riskier single-occasion drinking

Abstract

Cognitions in relation to drinking alcohol on a single occasion were explored within the framework of Protection Motivation Theory (PMT). One hundred and twenty three students provided information about their current weekend drinking, beliefs about drinking, and intentions to drink at safer limits. Data on self reported weekend drinking were gathered two weeks later from the same respondents. Analyses showed PMT components to be predictive of intentions but not of later behaviour. Perceived severity and self-efficacy related significantly to intentions for drinking at safer limits. No PMT measure differentiated between those who engaged in riskier single-occasion drinking at follow up and those whose drinking was less risky. Past behaviour was the only significant predictor of riskier single-occasion drinking at follow up. Implications for the current utility of PMT are discussed particularly in relation to respondents' reactions to newly identified health threats.     

Temporal stability of the intrinsic motivation inventory

To examine the temporal stability of the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory a Greek version was administered to 144 undergraduate students after an endurance field test. The same procedure was repeated one week later. Factor analysis followed by varimax rotation showed that three factors (Perceived Competence, Interest/enjoyment, and Effort/importance) explained 65.26% of the total variance. Computed intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) were .61 for the Perceived Competence subscale, .86 for the Interest/enjoyment, .60 for the Effort/importance, and .70 for the overall scale. The results, however, were modified when the sample was divided in two groups. The first represented small changes in perceived competence between the first and the second measurement, while the second one represented large changes between the two measurements. Recalculated intraclass correlation coefficients for individuals whose Perceived Competence score remained relatively stable yield a high value (.92), whereas individuals whose Perceived Competence changed yield an extremely low value (.60). It was concluded that the Intrinsic Motivation Inventory provides a temporally stable measure, given that perceived competence has not been markedly changed.     

Chinese affect circumplex: I. Structure of recalled momentary affect

The structure of momentary affect among Cantonese-speaking Chinese was explored by developing questionnaire scales in four response formats. Scales can be scored for dimensions defined by Feldman Barrett and Russell; Thayer; Larsen and Diener; and Watson and Tellegen. In a study of recalled affect ( N  = 487), the newly translated scales were found to support all but Watson and Tellegen's structural model originating from English. Results cross-validated well in a second sample ( N  = 402). Affect dimensions were interrelated as found with English-speaking Canadians and they could be integrated into a two-dimensional bipolar space.     

Goal theory vs. control theory: Contrasting approaches to understanding work motivation

Control theory has been propounded as an original and useful paradigm for integrating a number of theories of human (especially work) motivation. This paper challenges that claim. First, it is shown that the original, mechanical control theory model is not applicable to human beings. Second, it is shown that the two approaches used by control theorists to remedy its limitations did not succeed. One approach involved incorporating propositions drawn from other theories with the result that there was nothing distinctive left that was unique to control theory. The other approach involved broadening the scope of control theory by adding deduced propositions; however, these propositions were inconsistent with what was already known about the phenomena in question based on empirical research. The control theory approach to theory building is contrasted with that of goal setting theory (Locke & Latham, 1990). Goal-setting theory is a grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) which evolved from research findings over a 25-year period. Goal theory developed in five directions simultaneously: validation of the core premises; demonstrations of generality; identification of moderators; conceptual refinement and elaboration; and integration with other theories. It is hypothesized that the grounded theory approach is a more fruitful one than the approaches used by control theory.The author wishes to thank Judy Olian for her helpful comments on this paper and Dong-OK Chah for making the figures.     

The social motivation theory of autism

The idea that social motivation deficits play a central role in Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) has recently gained increased interest. This constitutes a shift in autism research, which has traditionally focused more intensely on cognitive impairments, such as theory-of-mind deficits or executive dysfunction, and has granted comparatively less attention to motivational factors. This review delineates the concept of social motivation and capitalizes on recent findings in several research areas to provide an integrated account of social motivation at the behavioral, biological and evolutionary levels. We conclude that ASD can be construed as an extreme case of diminished social motivation and, as such, provides a powerful model to understand humans' intrinsic drive to seek acceptance and avoid rejection.     

Actual environments do affect motivation and psychological adjustment: A test of self-determination theory in a natural setting

This study examined the impact of the actual environment on changes in psychological adjustment over time. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior, 1985a, Plenum, New York; J Res Pers 19:109–134, 1985b; Psychol Inq 11:227–268, 2000), environments that are objectively supportive of autonomy should facilitate psychological adjustment through their impact on people’s subjective perceptions of autonomy and self-determined motivation. The present study tested this hypothesis using a prospective design with nursing homes residents. Results from structural equation modeling showed that actual autonomy-supportive nursing home environments were positively associated with residents’ perceptions of autonomy that in turn predicted self-determined motivation in major life domains. Self-determined motivation, in turn, predicted increases in psychological adjustment over a one-year period. Theoretical implications of the present findings are discussed in line with SDT.

Towards a neo-configurational theory of intrinsic motivation

Motivation and Emotion - This research seeks to improve our understanding of how intrinsic motivation is instantiated. Three motivation theories, flow theory, self-determination theory, and...     

Expectancy theory predictions and behaviorally anchored scales of motivation: An empirical test of engineers

The present study involved 375 engineers and 110 supervisory team engineers. A partial replication of the Arvey and Neel (1974) and the Landy and Guion (1970) research involving behaviorally anchored scales of motivational effort was first investigated with a number of engineering groups. In addition, a behaviorally specific motivational effort rating scale was developed for and tested in the company. The organizational specific scale results were examined and compared to those generated from the Landy and Guion (1970) scale. It was found that the organizationally specific and engineer relevant scale is a better predictor of two types of expectancies.     

A review and empirical comparison of motivation scoring methods: An application to self-determination theory

Motivation and Emotion - Self-determination Theory differentiates various types of motivation, each of which have different consequences for well-being and behavior. Despite broad agreement...     

The influence of positive affect on the components of expectancy motivation

The influence of positive affect on expectancy motivation was investigated in 2 studies. The results of Study 1 indicated that positive affect improved people's performance and affected their perceptions of expectancy and valence. In Study 1, in which outcomes depended on chance, positive affect did not influence people's perceptions of instrumentality. In Study 2, in which the link between performance and outcomes was specified, positive affect influenced all 3 components of expectancy motivation. Together, the results of Studies 1 and 2 indicated that positive affect interacts with task conditions in influencing motivation and that its influence on motivation occurs not through general effects, such as response bias or general activation, but rather through its influence on the cognitive processes involved in motivation.