Type A personality and discrepancies between self-report and heart-rate responses to stress

The present study was done to replicate previous findings on the discrepancy between Type A persons' self-reports of stress and their physiological arousal. An attempt was made to clarify whether this discrepancy was due to Type A persons' denial of their arousal or an inability to discriminate physiological change. The students' version of the Jenkins Activity Survey was administered to 30 female students, aged 19 to 43 yr., who then performed a digit recall. A Multiple Affect Adjective Check List and a self-report questionnaire were used to measure affective reactions. Analysis showed that Type A individuals had higher heart-rate responses to stress but did not report greater subjective arousal. These results replicated the previously reported discrepancy. The current findings are somewhat consistent with an explanation based on discrimination.     

Stress and Distress as a Function of Jenkins Activity Survey-Defined Type A Behavior and Control Over the Work Environment

Although laboratory studies have demonstrated that situational factors which are particularly threatening to Type A individuals induce both Type A behaviors and cardiovascular reactivity, field studies have failed to demonstrate consistent differences between Types A and B in response to stress. Rhodewalt, Hays, Chemers, and Wysocki (1984) argued that this inconsistency is caused by the failure to take into account the individual's perception of the situation. They demonstrated that Type A individuals who perceived high levels of job stress reported more psychological and physical health problems than Type As under low stress or Type Bs under high or low stress. This study attempted to replicate this earlier finding, as well as identify factors in the situation which lead Type A individuals to perceive their job as stressful. Three hundred thirty-six male school principals (categorized as Type A or Type B by the Jenkins Activity Survey [JAS]) completed questionnaires assessing their degree of control in their work environment, perceived job stress, and physical and psychological well-being. A path mediation analysis indicated that Type A individuals reported more job stress under lower levels of perceived control, and that higher job-stress levels subsequently lead to greater incidence of physical and psychological symptoms, especially for Type As.     

The Effect of Experience on the Goal-Setting Behavior of Type A and Type B Individuals

The effect of experience on the goal-setting behavior of Type A and Type B individuals was assessed using anagram tasks. Sixty men and 60 women were administered the Jenkins Activity Survey as well as a questionnaire assessing their previous experience with anagram tasks. Before each of three anagram trials, subjects set a performance goal and indicated how certain they were that they could reach that goal. The analyses indicated that Type A men had the largest differences between performance goals and actual performance, even though men, in general, were more certain that they would reach their goals. Differences across trials, however, decreased for all individuals. Men with the most prior self-reported experience were least satisfied with their performance. Of interest was the finding that Type B women had higher difference scores than did Type A women.     

The JAS-T and Type A in Students: A Replication Note

The researcher identified 36 Type A (18 males, 18 females) and 36 Type B (18 males, 18 females) students using the Jenkins Activity Survey-Student Form (JAS-T). Subjects represented the upper and lower thirds of 54 males and 54 females who were tested. Self-reports of cumulative grade point average (GPA), desired GPA, and hours in extracurricular activities were also obtained. Type A students reported desiring and achieving significantly higher GPAs than Type Bs (p < .05), replicating earlier findings. However, male, but not female, Type As reported spending significantly more time in extracurricular activities than Type Bs (p < .05). These results represent further indication that women may manifest Type A status somewhat differently from men.     

Type A behavior and parenting stress in mothers with young children

Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP) is characterized by competitiveness, a sense of time-urgency, impatience, and aggression/hostility and it has been associated with coronary heart disease and occupational stress in men. Recently, research had begun to examine TABP in women. However, the majority of studies focus on women as student or employee and not in the role of mother. Thus, although women spend a significant proportion of their adult lives bearing and raising children, little is known about TABP relationships in these roles. Further, the parenting adjustment literature amply describes the stressful nature of parenting a young child but with little attention paid to the relationship between maternal individual characteristics and parenting stress. This study investigated maternal adjustment and TABP in order to provide a clearer picture of Type A women as mothers as well as to expand information on individual characteristics which contribute to or mediate a woman’s adjustment to motherhood. Because of its presumed relationship to TABP and stress, maternal employment status was a control variable. One hundred twenty-six women with children between the ages of 9–24 months completed questionnaires reporting maternal stress, maternal perceptions of her child and somatic complaints. TABP was assessed by two measures, the Framingham Type A Scale (FTAS) and a recent measure, the Adolescent/Adult Type A Behavior Scale (AATABS), which yields factor scores as well as a global TABP rating. Overall, Type A women reported higher levels of child-related stress and personal stress than Type B women. Certain factors such as Hurry, Control, and Hostility were also associated with stress indices. There was qualified support for a relationship between the TABP factor, Hurry, and self-reported somatic complaints. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Type A behavior and parenting stress in mothers with young children

Type A Behavior Pattern (TABP) is characterized by competitiveness, a sense of time-urgency, impatience, and aggression/hostility and it has been associated with coronary heart disease and occupational stress in men. Recently, research had begun to examine TABP in women. However, the majority of studies focus on women as student or employee and not in the role of mother. Thus, although women spend a significant proportion of their adult lives bearing and raising children, little is known about TABP relationships in these roles. Further, the parenting adjustment literature amply describes the stressful nature of parenting a young child but with little attention paid to the relationship between maternal individual characteristics and parenting stress. This study investigated maternal adjustment and TABP in order to provide a clearer picture of Type A women as mothers as well as to expand information on individual characteristics which contribute to or mediate a woman’s adjustment to motherhood. Because of its presumed relationship to TABP and stress, maternal employment status was a control variable. One hundred twenty-six women with children between the ages of 9–24 months completed questionnaires reporting maternal stress, maternal perceptions of her child and somatic complaints. TABP was assessed by two measures, the Framingham Type A Scale (FTAS) and a recent measure, the Adolescent/Adult Type A Behavior Scale (AATABS), which yields factor scores as well as a global TABP rating. Overall, Type A women reported higher levels of child-related stress and personal stress than Type B women. Certain factors such as Hurry, Control, and Hostility were also associated with stress indices. There was qualified support for a relationship between the TABP factor, Hurry, and self-reported somatic complaints. Directions for future research are discussed.     

Further evidence of associations of type a personality scores and driving-related attitudes and behaviors

The present study examined the effects of Type A personality on specific self-reported driving attitudes and behaviors when operating a motor vehicle. 102 undergraduate students completed the student version of the Jenkins Activity Survey (Form T) and several questionnaires asking participants about their driving history, driving attitudes, and driving behaviors. When the full range of Type A scores were examined, Type A personality was significantly related to more traffic accidents, greater frequency of breaking traffic laws, higher impatience when driving, more displays of aggression on the road, and engaging in more risky driving behaviors (rs<.17). When extreme Type A and Type B scores were compared, Type A drivers reported being involved in significantly more motor vehicle accidents and reported displaying more aggression on the road. Further research should examine actual behavioral data using more diverse samples to validate the results.     

Sleep duration and self-reported Type A behavior: a replication.

Scores on the Jenkins Activity Survey (Form T)(Glass, 1977) were compared for 58 and 70 university students who reported, respectively, a regular sleep pattern of less or more than 8 hr per night. Replicating a previous report (Hicks et al., 1979), subjects who slept fewer hours scored higher on Type A behavior questions than those who slept more hours. However, for subjects with a less stable sleeping pattern, Type A scores for the two groups (ns = 72, 23) did not differ.     

Type a behavior,irritability, and cardiovascular response

Previous research suggests that high levels of hostility may augment the cardiovascular reactivity and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD) associated with Type A behavior. In contrast, other research indicates that the tendency to deny or suppress anger is associated with enhanced cardiovascular reactivity and risk of CHD. To delineate further the combined role of anger processes and Type A behavior in CHD risk, this study examined the interactive effects of Type A behavior and self-reported irritability on cardiovascular response to a challenging mental task. Type A and Type B college students were further classified as either high or low in self-reported irritability. Type A subjects who were low in self-reported irritability evidenced greater cardiovascular reactivity (i.e., systolic blood pressure and pulse rate) than did Type B subjects low in irritability. However, Type A subjects who were high in irritability tended to demonstrate less cardiovascular response than Type B subjects high in irritability. Further, Type A's low in self-reported irritability evidenced greater cardiovascular response than high-irritability Type A's. It is suggested that reduced reporting of irritability by Type A's may reflect suppression or denial, and further that this reduced reporting is associated with enhanced cardiovascular responsivity.     

Type A personality, self-control, and vulnerability to stress

Type A behavior (hard-driving, competitive, time-urgent, hostile-irritable) has been linked to high stress levels and the risk of eventual cardiovascular problems (i.e., coronary heart disease, CHD). However, this pattern of behavior closely resembles the traditional masculine instrumental (goal-oriented) orientation, and, if kept within limits, may be viewed as adaptive in success-oriented, middle-class college students. Hypothetically then, Type A behavior may be displayed by a broad group of individuals, and only in those cases when it is allowed to reach extreme proportions is stress sufficient enough to confer risk. This article considers two lines of reasoning. Is greater self-control required for college women to be Type As, because it involves crossing into traditional male role behavior? Type A women displayed significantly better self-control then Type B women; the opposite result was disclosed for college men with Type As displaying poorer self-control than Type Bs. The question of whether risk-conferring Type A behavior would result from poorer self-control was answered in the affirmative. Self-control assumed moderator status; poorer self-control in both male and female Type As was associated with high levels of day-to-day stress relative to Type As with better self-control. Self-control did not influence stress level in Type Bs. This moderator effect suggests that only Type As who cannot contain their behavior within adaptive limits will be vulnerable to excessive stress and at risk for CHD.     

Cognitive appraisal of daily hassles in college students showing Type A or Type B behavior patterns

To test the hypothesized role of cognitive appraisal in Lazarus' model of life stress, 312 male and female undergraduate students completed the Hassles Scale and the Jenkins Activity Survey, Form C. Based upon their scores on the Type A scale of the Jenkins Activity Survey, subjects showing Type A behavior pattern differed significantly from subjects showing Type B behavior pattern on both reported frequencies of hassles (higher for Type A scoring subjects) and hassles content pattern. This is interpreted primarily as supportive of the cognitive appraisal variable in Lazarus' life stress model.     

Type A behavior, attentional style, and symptom reporting among adult men and women

Type A behavior and its components (measured on the JAS) were examined in relation to attentional style and symptom reporting in 294 healthy adult men and women. The results showed that for both men and women the JAS Type A, Job Involvement, and Hard Driving factors were all associated with self-reported attentional effectiveness as measured by the Nideffer Test of Attentional and Interpersonal Style. However, a fourth JAS factor, Speed and Impatience, was associated with Nideffer measures of cognitive overload. For both men and women, the Type A, Speed and Impatience, and Hard Driving factors were all positively associated with the number of medical and psychological symptoms reported on the Cornell Medical Index. In addition, acute psychological distress (Hopkins SCL-90R) was associated with Type A behavior for men and with Speed and Impatience for both sexes. Attention differences did not account for the observed positive relationships between Type A factors and symptom reporting with one exception; attentional overload (internal) appeared to partially explain the relationships between symptom reporting and Speed and Impatience in women. In summary, Type As described themselves as having a broader attentional focus and reported more naturally occurring physical and psychological symptoms than did Type Bs.     

The Jenkins Activity Survey measure of type a and frustration-induced anger

The present study examined the physiological and self-report responses of Type A and B males, defined by the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS), to an anger-inducing frustration manipulation. Subjects jointly performed a task with a confederate and either were or were not frustrated by the confederate in their attempt to gain a prize. Physiological and self-report measures indicated that the frustration manipulation generated anger, but there was no evidence that Type A subjects were more angered than Type B subjects. Such findings may reflect a weakness in the Jenkins Activity Survey for adequately measuring the hostility component of the Type A pattern.The research reported here was supported by a Biomedical Sciences Support Grant RRO 7037 to the second author.     

Type A behavior, job satisfaction, and stress among black professionals.

Most studies of work-related Type A behavior have been conducted with samples of white men. Using a mail questionnaire to assess Type A behavior, job satisfaction, and daily stress and tension among 250 black men and 233 black women public accountants, the prevalence of Type A behavior and its relationship with satisfaction and stress were highly consistent with those reported for other samples of white men and women.     

Gender differences in the relationship between hostility and the type A behavior pattern

A group of 97 male and 111 female undergraduates completed the Jenkins Activity Survey, the Framingham Type A Scale, the Adjective Checklist Type A Scale, the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory, and the Buss-Durkee Hostility Inventory. A factor analysis revealed three dimensions: Anger-Emotionality, Anger-Aggression, and Residual Pattern A. All Type A measures loaded highly on the Type A factor, with the Jenkins Activity Survey loading the highest. The Framingham Type A Scale was related to Anger-Emotionality, the Adjective Checklist Type A Scale was related to Anger-Aggression, and the Jenkins Activity Survey was related to neither of the anger dimensions. Women scored higher than men on Anger-Emotionality and the Guilt, Resentment, and Irritability subscales and lower than men on the Assaultiveness subscale. Women showed higher correlations between Type A and the Guilt subscale, and men between Type A and the Suspiciousness subscale. We conclude that Type A is a multidimensional construct that manifests itself differently in men and women.     

Hardiness, type A behavior, and the stress-illness relation in working women

Hardiness has been proposed as a stress-resistance resource in maintaining health. This construct has been shown to act in conjunction with the Type A behavior pattern in affecting illness. In this study, we examined this relation in women (N = 82) with the use of the Structured Interview and the Jenkins Activity Survey to assess Type A behavior. As expected, there was a strong stress-illness association. However, there were no hardiness main effects nor interactions between stress, Type A behavior, and hardiness. Hardiness was significantly associated with age, education level, and marital status. No differences in hardiness composition were found between high stress/high illness and high stress/low illness groups. Only the Powerlessness scale of hardiness was related to illness. These results are discussed in comparison with other hardiness studies. Particular attention is focused on possible sex differences, and implications for future research are suggested.     

Relationship between JAS- and FTAS-Type A behavior and non-CHD illness: a prospective study controlling for negative affectivity

In addition to posing a risk for coronary heart disease (CHD), Type A behavior has been suggested as a risk factor for non-CHD illness. Past evidence, however, has relied chiefly on retrospective studies of self-reported illness that failed to control for the potentially confounding effects of negative affectivity. The present investigation was an 18-month prospective study of Type A behavior and medical records of illness in which chronic negative affectivity was also assessed. Negative affectivity was associated with retrospective self-reported illness, but only Type A, as measured by the Jenkins Activity Survey (JAS) and the Framingham Type A Scale (FTAS), predicted medical records of subsequent illness severity and number of illness-related medical visits. Controlling for negative affectivity did not reduce these significant relationships. It was concluded that persons scoring high on the JAS or the FTAS may be a greater risk of minor illness when objective measures of illness are assessed over a period of 1 year or more. Alternative explanations and future directions for research are discussed.     

Type A behavior, aerobic power, and cardiovascular recovery from a psychosocial stressor

Fifty-six male university students were tested for actual aerobic power and Type A behavior (Form T of the Jenkins Activity Survey) before performing the Stroop Color-Word Interference Test. Neither fitness nor Type A was related to magnitude of heart rate (HR) increase, and only Type A was related to speed of recovery following the test, with Type As being slower to return to baseline HR levels than Type Bs. These results are discussed in terms of the need to consider factors that mediate speed of recovery from stress.     

Acute effects of alcohol on cardiovascular reactivity to stress in college-age Type A (coronary prone) individuals

Healthy college-age males and females classified as Type A or Type B were randomly assigned to an alcohol (N=24) or a no-alcohol condition (N=24). Subjects were exposed to a verbal stress quiz while blood pressure, heart rate, peripheral vascular response (PVR), and self-reported anxiety indices were monitored. Results indicated that alcohol effected a reduction in resting levels of systolic blood pressure and a tonic reduction in the peripheral vascular response. Alcohol attenuated the systolic blood pressure, heart rate, and PVR to stress and efffected a decrease in anxiety following the Stressor. When analyzed relative to the participants' drinking experience, data indicated that the strongest stress-modulating effect of alcohol was evidenced by Type A subjects who have been identified as long-term drinkers. During recovery from stress Type A subjects identified as short-term drinkers maintained high levels of PVR. Types A and B subjects who did not ingest alcohol evidenced high PVR levels during stress. The findings are discussed in terms of the protective action of moderate chronic alcohol use on cardiovascular disease risk reduction in persons evidencing the coronary-prone behavior pattern.