Behavior change after context disruption: Opportunities and pitfalls

Many behaviors are performed automatically in response to contextual cues rather than conscious intentions, which can make behavior change challenging. The combined discontinuity and self-activation hypotheses predict that disruption to a context that cues behaviors can provide opportunity for behavior change guided by intentions rather than contextual cues. In this study, we asked an online sample of participants (N = 452) to report on desired change in the frequency of new, unwanted, or potentially habitual behaviors following a contextual disruption due to the COVID-19 pandemic. We find a distinction between new ‘start’ behaviors and unwanted ‘stop’ behaviors where new behaviors appear more personally meaningful (i.e. higher in autonomous motivation and positive affective attitude) than unwanted or potentially habitual behaviors. Our results suggest that behavior change theory and interventions that acknowledge differential processes between starting new behaviors and stopping old unwanted behaviors would provide greater insights for behavior science.     

刻板印象的自动过程研究新进展

本文从两个方面对刻板印象的自动过程研究进行了回顾：自动过程是固定的和不可避免的;自动过程是有条件的。一个传统的观点在心理学中占据了将近40年,它认为刻板印象是自动激活的,不考虑知觉者的意图和目标。近几年来针对自动刻板印象的适应性的研究将近50项,对此提出挑战,研究表明知觉者的目的和意图能够起一些作用,自动刻板印象能够被一系列的因素所缓和,具有一定的适应性。     

刻板印象激活的无意图性及其大脑神经活动特征

采用启动Stroop范式, 对刻板印象激活的无意图性及其大脑神经活动特征进行了探讨。操纵了启动和“无启动”条件以及与启动所激活的刻板印象一致、冲突和无关的3类靶子词, 记录了36名大学生被试对靶子词进行颜色判别的行为反应和脑电图(EEG, electroencephalogram)。结果发现：(1)“无启动”条件下对3类靶子的反应时基本一致; 启动条件下对一致靶子做出颜色判别的反应时显著快于对冲突靶子的, 对无关靶子的反应时介于两者之间。(2)“无启动”条件下无关靶子诱发的N400波幅最大--显著大于一致和冲突靶子诱发的, 后两者诱发的N400无差异; 启动条件下一致靶子诱发的N400波幅显著小于冲突和无关靶子诱发的N400波幅, 无关靶子诱发的N400波幅也小于冲突靶子诱发的N400波幅。这表明刻板印象激活是一个发生在知觉后加工阶段的具有无意图性的自动化加工过程, 刻板印象激活效应具有抑制冲突信息加工同时促进一致信息加工的“双刃剑”模式, N400可以作为考察这一认知过程特征的电生理学指标。     

刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进

刻板印象提升指个体意识到外群体具有消极刻板印象, 而产生与受诋毁的外群体向下的社会比较, 以提高个体自我效能感和动机, 进而提高表现; 刻板印象促进是积极刻板印象被激活后的积极结果, 指当个体处在他们的积极刻板印象身份被激活的情境中, 表现上升的一种现象。在刻板印象提升与刻板印象促进概念论述的基础上, 重点探讨了调节变量和结果影响这两种联系, 并从相关概念、被试要求和心理机制这三方面论述了这两者的区别。最后, 指出未来研究应加强对二者的关注, 消除其在概念上的混淆, 开展相关心理与神经机制的研究, 以及结合刻板印象阻抗进行探讨。     

Stereotype Threat in Men on a Test of Social Sensitivity

This study provides evidence of stereotype threat in men on a test of a feminine ability called social sensitivity, that is, the ability to decode nonverbal cues. Men who were told that the test assessed social sensitivity and produced better scores for women than men performed worse on the test than did men who were told that the test assessed information processing. Because social sensitivity can be an automatic skill and stereotype threat uses mental capacity, this effect was moderated by self-reported strategy usage. Mens performance worsened in the threat condition only when they reported more deliberative and less intuitive strategies for decoding nonverbal cues.     

刻板印象干预策略研究述评

刻板印象是人际交往间产生偏见的主要原因, 研究者一直致力于如何从根源上减少甚至消除刻板印象。关于刻板印象的可控性,传统观点认为“自动过程是固定的和不可避免”, 而修正观点则认为“自动过程是有条件的”。迄今为止, 相关实证研究已揭示出一些消除刻板印象的有效干预策略, 归结起来, 主要有训练策略、意识性抑制策略、熟悉性策略和树立无偏见信念策略。现有的干预研究从实证角度支持了刻板印象的可控性理论。未来的研究还需要进一步从策略的推广性、有效性和作用机制等方面加以完善。     

刻板印象从内容模型到系统模型的发展与应用

21世纪以来,在刻板印象研究中最受瞩目的当属刻板印象内容模型（Stereotype Content Model, SCM）的提出。它通过热情和能力二个维度区分对不同群体的刻板印象。新近的系统模型则将SCM与群际情绪、行为反应相结合,并凸现了道德维度,开创性地提出了群际情绪-刻板印象-行为趋向系统模型（Behaviors from Intergroup Affect and Stereotypes Map, BIAS Map）。这一系统模型是对刻板印象内容模型的有意义延伸,同时二者的有机结合进一步促进了刻板印象内群体与群体间研究的整合性,较之又增添了认知-情绪-行为与刻板印象预测之间的联结。     

刻板印象威胁：新议题与新争议

刻板印象威胁是指当个体或群体感知到情境中有关所属群体消极刻板印象存在时, 由于担心和焦虑反而会验证自己或所属群体的消极刻板印象这一过程。大量的实证研究证实, 消极刻板印象的存在会损害个体或群体在相关领域的表现。但新近研究在影响因素中出现了许多新的议题, 如外溢效应、交互作用力和系统性等。在刻板印象威胁的应对和干预策略中也突破了以往的研究路线, 围绕认同融合与认同分离、否定策略的适用性、促进效应与窒息效应、角色榜样策略的矛盾性、认同转换策略和弱化群体边界的有效性以及群体互动改善效果等展开了新的讨论与纷争。通过对这些新议题和新讨论的梳理与阐释, 提出了未来研究可尝试的路径。     

Soldiers' In-Group and Out-Group Peer Perception: Contact and Ethnic Identity

The role of intergroup contact and ethnic identity in forming stereotypes was investigated in a military setting. The samples included 535 immigrant soldiers, serving in immigrant-only, combat, and administrative units. Participants rated their ethnic identity and their perception of in-group and out-group soldiers. Significant effects were found for unit type, ethnic identity (low vs. high), and the interaction between these variables. In-group perceptions were more positive than out-group perceptions. Interdependence is important for enhancing out-group perception and, unlike contact, buffers the negative effect of ethnic identity on out-group perception.     

Autonomy,free speech and automatic behaviour

One of the strongest defences of free speech holds that autonomy requires the protection of speech. In this paper I examine five conditions that autonomy must satisfy. I survey recent research in social psychology regarding automatic behaviour, and a challenge to autonomy is articulated. I argue that a plausible strategy for neutralising some of the autonomy-threatening automatic responses consists in avoiding the exposure to the environmental features that trigger them. If this is so, we can good autonomy-based pro tanto reasons for controlling exposure to certain forms of speech. Earlier drafts of this paper were presented in the 2005 Warwick Graduate Conference in Political theory, the 2005 ALSP Conference at the University of Strathclyde, and the Discussion Group of Political Theory at Warwick University. I am grateful for the many comments received on those occasions, especially to Peter Jones, Graham Long, Glen Newey, Fabienne Peter, Jonathan Seglow and Will Smith. Two anonymous referees for Res Publica gave me helpful comments that benefited the argument defended here. Especial thanks are due to Matthew Clayton and Susan Hurley who provided me with detailed written comments and fruitful discussion.     

内隐刻板印象研究综述

内隐刻板印象是存在的,并且比较集中地体现在内隐种族刻板印象、内隐性别刻板印象等方面.在相关研究的基础上,逐渐形成了判断潜伏期测量、投射测量等有效捕捉和研究内隐刻板印象的间接测量方法.     

刻板印象错误知觉任务:区分刻板印象激活与刻板印象应用的新方法

刻板印象错误知觉任务(Stereotype Misperception Task,简称SMT)是一种能对刻板印象激活和刻板印象应用进行有效区分的研究范式,对应的多项式模型能对二者各自贡献量大小进行测算与评估。依托对二者关系的解构,介绍了SMT的操作程序、原理、多项式模型及其数据分析,比较了SMT和情感错误归因程序(AMP)以及四重模型的内在关联和本质区别,展望了未来的发展方向。     

Benevolent ageism: Attitudes of overaccommodative behavior toward older women

ABSTRACT

Stereotypes of older adults fit a paternalistic pattern, including elevated warmth and lowered competence, yet little effort has been made to elucidate this in an everyday context. This phenomenon was examined with an experimental vignette, in which a woman was offered unnecessary help; specifically, the age (young vs. old) and the independence (accepting vs. declining assistance) of the woman were manipulated. Attributions from a college-age sample toward the woman were examined. In the older conditions, hypotheses were confirmed that participants approved overaccommodative behaviors, endorsed higher warmth and lower competence, and attitudes were modified when the older women contradicted the paternalistic stereotype by declining assistance. That is, competence was modifiable for older women, whereas warmth was not. Implications of these findings as possible evidence of benevolent ageism and the malleability of the Stereotype Content Model are discussed.     

Gender stereotypes and motor performance: How explicit and implicit stereotypes influence girls standing long jump and anxiety

ObjectivesInducing a negative stereotype toward women usually leads to a decrease in women's motor performance. Given that most studies have focused on explicit stereotype induction among adults, the main aim of this study was to investigate the effects of explicit and implicit gender stereotypes on standing long jump performance in children. The second aim was to investigate the effects of these same manipulations on children’s state anxiety.DesignA mixed model design with within-between-subject was used with standing long jump performance and state anxiety as dependent variables.MethodTwo hundred and four children (Mage = 10.95 years, SDage = 0.85) participated in this study and were randomly assigned, after baseline measurement, into four different groups (i.e., explicit/implicit vs. explicit vs. implicit vs. control). Specifically, participants performed 8 trials of standing long jump (4 trials during the baseline phase and 4 trials during the experimental phase). Children also completed the competitive state Anxiety Inventory at baseline as well as immediately after the trials.ResultsFor motor performance, children in the explicit/implicit group and in the implicit group were negatively affected by the stereotype manipulation during all trials whereas participants in the explicit group were only negatively impacted during the last two trials. However, regarding state anxiety, children were negatively affected after both explicit only and implicit only manipulations and more significantly after explicit/implicit manipulation.ConclusionsThe present research showed that the explicit and implicit manipulations influenced motor performance differently, but that these two manipulations increased state anxiety in the same way. Moreover, the combination of the explicit and implicit inductions leads to a greater significant negative influence on state anxiety but not motor performance.     

Variation in the Application of the “Promiscuous Female” Stereotype and the Nature of the Application Domain: Influences on Sexual Harassment Judgments after Exposure to the Jerry Springer Show

This study was designed to explore how the impact of exposure to a few stereotyped group members can be mediated by individual variation in stereotype application to other group members. When compared to participants exposed to nonpromiscuous women on an episode of the Jerry Springer Show, those exposed to promiscuous women perceived a victim of sexual harassment as less traumatized and more responsible for the event. In addition, exposure condition had no impact on judgments when the man physically touched the victim. Conversely, when he made a verbal comment or verbal request, those in the promiscuous condition reported perceptions of less victim trauma and made greater attributions of victim responsibility. The findings also indicate that the effects of exposure to the promiscuous woman depictions were mediated by individual variation in attributions of victim promiscuity. Finally, activation of the promiscuous female stereotype was also shown to have generalized to judgments of women in a nonsexual domain.     

Peers and Performance: How In-Group and Out-Group Comparisons Moderate Stereotype Threat Effects

The present study examined how exposure to the performance of in-group and out-group members can both exacerbate and minimize the negative effects of stereotype threat. Female participants learned that they would be taking a math test that was either diagnostic or nondiagnostic of their math ability. Prior to taking the test, participants interacted with either an in-group peer (a female college student) or an out-group peer (a male college student) who had just taken the test, and learned that the student had either performed well or poorly on the test. Exposure to either an in-group or an out-group peer whose performance was consistent with the negative stereotype (a poor-performing female or a strong-performing male) exacerbated stereotype threat effects. In contrast, exposure to an in-group or an out-group peer whose performance challenged the negative stereotype (a strong-performing female or a poor-performing male) eliminated stereotype threat effects. These findings demonstrate that people can look to both in-group and out-group peers as sources of inspiration in the context of a negative stereotype.

The Impact of In-Group and Out-Group Homogeneity/Heterogeneity Upon Intergroup Relations

This study explores the effect of experimentally manipulated in-group and out-group homogeneity/heterogeneity upon subsequent intergroup discrimination. In order to do this, homogeneity/heterogeneity of the in-group as well as of the out-group was experimentally manipulated. Seventy-two boys and 72 girls, ages 12 to 14, participated in the experiment. On the presumed basis of a perceptual task, they were randomly allocated to minimal social categories, whose variability was manipulated. After performing a perceptual estimation task, they were asked to evaluate the performance of the in-group and out-group in this task. The results indicated that a manipulation of in-group homogeneity/heterogeneity produced not much of an effect: Although a heterogeneous in-group discriminated more than a homogenous one, this difference was not significant. The manipulation of out-group homogeneity/heterogeneity had a much stronger effect: Although subjects discriminated significantly against a homogenous out-group, this discrimination disappeared when the out-group was heterogenous. The theoretical implications of the data are discussed.     

内隐刻板印象中反刻板印象信息的干预研究

该研究以性别职业刻板印象和自我-职业刻板印象的内隐联想测验（IAT）为实验材料和测量工具．通过提供反刻板印象信息为干预策略进行实验。研究表明：职业一性别刘板印象和职业一自我刻板印象层次不同,在总体上具有显著的相关;大学生在职业-性别刻板印象和职业一自我刻板印象上都存在极其显著的内隐效应,女大学生显示极强的内隐职业一自我刻板印象;在职业-自我刻板印象上,反刻板印象信息具有显著的干预作用,对男大学生的干预作用比对女大学生的大;在内隐水平上反刻板印象信息只能部分消除刻板印象;设计的[AT纸笔测验版本是可行的;在学校教育中渗透性别平等教育将是十分必要的和可行的。     

How can a stereotype inconsistency bias be encouraged in communication?

This study aimed to investigate what conditions can lead to a bias for communicating stereotype inconsistent (SI) information, relative to stereotype consistent (SC) information. Sixty‐three undergraduate university students (22 males, 41 females; M_age = 21.25) read a story about an Arab man who exhibited characteristics consistent and inconsistent with the stereotype of Arab men. The story was transmitted through 21 three‐person communication chains; each participant rewrote the story from memory for the next person in the chain to read, with only the first participant in each chain reading the original story. As hypothesized, when a surprising category conjunction was formed by pairing the primary stereotype (Arab men) with a secondary stereotype of a contradictory nature (kindergarten teachers), SC information was circulated less than SI information. This was also the case when a causal explanation was provided that accounted for the unexpected SI information. Findings indicate the potential of techniques that elicit cognitive elaboration of SI information to encourage an SI bias in communication, and show promise for exploring ways to reduce the impact of negative stereotypical information in the long term.