A secondary task is not always costly: Context‐based guidance of visual search survives interference from a demanding working memory task

Repeatedly encountering a visual search display with the target located at a fixed position relative to the distractors facilitates target detection, relative to novel displays – which is attributed to search guidance by (acquired) long‐term memory (LTM) of the distractor ‘context’ of the target. Previous research has shown that this ‘contextual cueing’ effect is severely impeded during learning when participants have to perform a demanding spatial working memory (WM) task concurrently with the search task, though it does become manifest when the WM task is removed. This has led to the proposal that search guidance by LT context memories critically depends on spatial WM to become ‘expressed’ in behaviour. On this background, this study, of two experiments, asked: (1) Would contextual cueing eventually emerge under dual‐task learning conditions if the practice on the task(s) is extended beyond the short training implemented in previous studies? and given sufficient practice, (2) Would performing the search under dual‐task conditions actually lead to an increased cueing effect compared to performing the visual search task alone? The answer is affirmative to both questions. In particular, Experiment 1 showed that a robust contextual cueing effect emerges within 360–720 dual‐task trials as compared to some 240 single‐task trials. Further, Experiment 2 showed that when dual‐ and single‐task conditions are performed in alternating trials blocks, the cueing effect for the very same set of repeated displays is significantly larger in dual‐task blocks than in single‐task blocks. This pattern of effects suggests that dual‐task practice eventually leads to direct, or ‘automatic’, guidance of visual search by learnt spatial LTM representations, bypassing WM processes. These processes are normally engaged in single‐task performance might actually interfere with direct LTM‐based search guidance.     

Visuospatial memory and phonological loop in learning from multimedia

The dual‐task paradigm was used to show how visuospatial working memory and the phonological loop are involved in processing scientific texts and illustrations presented via computer. In experiment 1, two presentation formats were compared: text‐only and text‐with‐illustrations. With a concurrent tapping task, the beneficial effect of illustrations disappeared, while a concurrent articulatory task impaired performance similarly in both presentation formats. An analysis of individual differences revealed that this pattern of results was present in high, but not low spatial span subjects. These results support the selective involvement of visuospatial working memory in processing illustrated texts. In Experiment 2, the text‐only presentation format was compared to an illustrations‐only format. The concurrent articulatory task selectively impaired text‐only processing, compared with processing illustrations‐only. In addition, this pattern of results was found for high, but not low digit span subjects. These results suggest that individual differences define the extent to which the two subsystems of working memory are involved in learning from multimedia. These two subsystems would be mainly involved in the maintenance of a visual trace of illustrations and of a verbatim representation of linguistic information respectively, these representations being the basis for higher‐level comprehension processes. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Learning procedures: the role of working memory in multimedia learning experiences

The ubiquitous label ‘some assembly required’ signals the appearance of instructions for assembly procedures. These instructions come in various formats, some of which may be more effective than others. Previous research has demonstrated advantages for multimedia as compared to single‐format presentations. The current study sought to outline the cognitive processes contributing to this advantage. Specifically, two experiments examined the working memory and source monitoring processes involved with remembering procedural instructions presented in three different formats. Participants learned procedural instructions while undertaking one of a variety of selective interference tasks targeting working memory subcomponents. Results, while supporting a multimedia advantage for learning, demonstrated selective working memory subsystem involvement with different instruction formats. Further, despite the multimedia advantage, participants often misremembered multimedia presentations as picture‐based ones. These results provide further insight into the cognitive processes that underlie comprehension and memory for multimedia experiences. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Cognitive processes in children's reading and attention: The role of working memory,divided attention,and response inhibition

Children experiencing attention difficulties have documented cognitive deficits in working memory (WM), response inhibition and dual tasks. Recent evidence suggests however that these same cognitive processes are also closely associated with reading acquisition. This paper therefore explores whether these variables predicted attention difficulties or reading among 123 children with and without significant attention problems sampled from the school population. Children were screened using current WM and attention task measures. Three factors explained variance in WM and attention tasks. Response inhibition tasks loaded mainly with central executive measures, but a dual processing task loaded with the visual‐spatial WM measures. Phonological loop measures loaded independently of attention measures. After controls for age, IQ and attention‐group membership, phonological loop and ‘central processing’ measures both predicted reading ability. A ‘visual memory/dual‐task’ factor predicted attention group membership after controls for age, IQ and reading ability. Results thus suggest that some of the processes previously assumed to be predictive of attention problems may reflect processes involved in reading acquisition. Visual memory and dual‐task functioning are, however, purer indices of cognitive difficulty in children experiencing attention problems.     

Visuo‐spatial working memory in navigation

Two experiments employed dual task techniques to explore the role of working memory in route learning and subsequent route retrieval. Experiment 1 involved contrasting performance of two groups of volunteers respectively learning a route from a series of map segments or a series of visually presented nonsense words. Both groups performed learning and recognition under articulatory suppression or concurrent spatial tapping. Both concurrent tasks had an overall disruptive effect on each learning task. However, spatial tapping disrupted route recognition rather more than did articulatory suppression, while the nonsense word recognition was impaired more by articulatory suppression than by concurrent spatial tapping. Experiment 2 again used dual task methodology, but explored route learning by asking volunteers to follow the experimenter through the winding streets of a medieval European town centre. Retrieval involved following the same route while the experimenter followed and noted errors in navigation. Overall the results partially replicated those of Experiment 1 in that both concurrent tasks interfered with route learning. However, volunteers with high spatial ability appeared more affected by the concurrent spatial tapping task, whereas low spatial subjects appeared more affected by the concurrent articulatory suppression task. Results are interpreted to suggest that different aspects of working memory are involved in learning a route from a map with a greater emphasis on visuo‐spatial resources, but in tasks set in real environments where many cues of a varied nature are available, only high spatial ability subjects appear to rely heavily upon the visuospatial component of working memory. Copyright © 2002 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Procedural Multimedia Presentations: The Effects of Working Memory and Task Complexity on Instruction Time and Assembly Accuracy

Procedural text conveys information of a series of steps to be performed. This study examined the role of verbal and visuo‐spatial WM in comprehension and execution of assembly instructions, as a function of format (text, images, multimedia) and task complexity (three or five steps). One hundred and eight participants read and executed 27 instructions to assemble a LEGO^TM object, in single and dual task conditions. Study times and errors during assembly were measured. Participants processed faster pictorial and multimedia instructions than text instructions, and made fewer errors in the execution of multimedia instructions. Dual task affected more text or picture‐only, than multimedia presentation. A verbal secondary task caused more errors in text or picture‐only presentations, and spatial secondary task also caused interference in text‐only instructions. Overall, these results support the multimedia advantage, and the role of both verbal and visuo‐spatial WM, when understanding instructions. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

空间工作记忆负载对真实场景情境提示效应的影响

重复的画面布局能够促进观察者对目标项的搜索 (情境提示效应)。本研究采用双任务范式,分别在视觉搜索任务的学习阶段 (实验2a) 和测验阶段 (实验2b) 加入空间工作记忆任务, 并与单任务基线 (实验1)进行比较, 考察空间工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索中情境线索学习和情境提示效应表达的影响。结果发现: 空间负载会增大学习阶段的情境提示效应量, 同时削弱测验阶段的情境提示效应量, 而不影响情境线索的外显提取。由此可见, 真实场景中情境线索的学习和提示效应的表达均会受到有限的工作记忆资源的影响, 但情境线索提取的外显性不变。     

Working memory interference during processing texts and pictures: Implications for the explanation of the modality effect

Auditory text presentation improves learning with pictures and texts. With sequential text–picture presentation, cognitive models of multimedia learning explain this modality effect in terms of greater visuo‐spatial working memory load with visual as compared to auditory texts. Visual texts are assumed to demand the same working memory subsystem as pictures, while auditory texts make use of an additional cognitive resource. We provide two alternative assumptions that relate to more basic processes: First, acoustic‐sensory information causes a retention advantage for auditory over visual texts which occurs no matter if a picture is presented or not. Second, eye movements during reading hamper visuo‐spatial rehearsal. Two experiments applying elementary procedures provide first evidence for these assumptions. Experiment 1 demonstrates that, regarding text recall, the auditory advantage is independent of visuo‐spatial working memory load. Experiment 2 reveals worse matrix recognition performance after reading text requiring eye movements than after listening or reading without eye movements. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Repetition and dual coding in procedural multimedia presentations

Students learned toy assembly sequences presented in picture, text, or one of three multimedia formats, and completed order verification, recall, and object assembly tasks. Experiment 1 compared repetitious (i.e. dual format presentations each conveying similar information) with complementary (i.e. dual format presentations each conveying different information) multimedia presentations. Repetitious presentations appear to provide learning benefits as a function of their inherent redundancy; complementary presentations provide benefits as a result of users actively integrating picture and text elements into a cohesive mental model. Experiment 2 compared repetitious with interleaved (i.e. assembly steps presented in alternating picture‐text formats) multimedia presentations. Again, multimedia presentations led to overall learning advantages relative to single‐format presentations, with an emphasis on both repetition and integrative working memory processes. Object assembly performance consistently demonstrated the utility of picture learning, with or without accompanying text. Results are considered relative to classic and contemporary learning theory, and inform educational design. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Learning from maps: the role of visuo‐spatial working memory

The involvement of visuo‐spatial working memory (VSWM) in map learning was tested. While learning a map, participants were asked either to perform or abstain from a secondary interference task. Learning of the map was assessed by means of three different tasks (landmark positioning, pointing, route finding), each tapping a different type of spatial knowledge, namely, relative position knowledge, absolute position knowledge and route knowledge. Results showed that VSWM supports learning of absolute landmark positions but not learning of relative landmark positions. Moreover, VSWM appears to be involved in route learning. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Working memory in spatial knowledge acquisition: Differences in encoding processes and sense of direction

This study examined how different components of working memory are involved in spatial knowledge acquisition for good and poor sense‐of‐direction (SOD) people. We employed a dual‐task method, and asked participants to learn routes from videos with verbal, visual and spatial interference tasks and without any interference. Results showed that participants with a good SOD encoded landmarks and routes verbally and spatially, and integrated knowledge about them into survey knowledge with the support of all three components of working memory. In contrast, participants with a poor SOD encoded landmarks only verbally, and tended to rely on the visual component of working memory in the processing of route knowledge. Based on the results, a possible model for explaining the differences in spatial knowledge acquisition and SOD was proposed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The role of visuo-spatial working memory in map learning: new findings from a map drawing paradigm

Recently, increasing attention has been devoted to the study of the role of visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) in environmental learning and spatial navigation. The present research was aimed at investigating the role of VSWM in map learning using a map drawing paradigm. In the first study, a dual task methodology was used. Results showed that map drawing was selectively impaired by a spatial tapping task that was executed during the map learning phase, hence supporting the hypothesis that VSWM plays an essential role in learning from maps. In the second study, using a correlational methodology, it was shown that performance in simultaneous VSWM tasks, but not in sequential VSWM tasks, predicted map drawing skills. These skills “in turn” correlated with map learning abilities. Finally, in the third study, we replicated the results of the second study, by using a different map. To our knowledge, the present study is the first to find evidence that the simultaneous aspects of VSWM play a fundamental role in learning from maps.     

Improving balance by performing a secondary cognitive task

Contrary to general findings in the attention and memory literature, some studies have shown that performing a secondary cognitive task produces an improvement in balance performance. The purpose of the present experiment was to investigate under what condition such an improvement would occur. Young and older adults were asked to hold as still as possible on a platform that measured sway while performing or not performing the encoding phase of the Brooks' (1967) spatial or non‐spatial memory task. The difficulty of maintaining balance was manipulated by varying the availability of visual input and sway‐referenced motion of the platform. Sway scores were computed based on the distance between the individual pressure centres and the average centre of pressure during each 20‐s trial. The results indicated that both the spatial and non‐spatial memory tasks improved balance for older adults under the most difficult balance condition.     

Effects of attentional demand,cue typicality,and priming on an event‐based prospective memory task

The main purpose of this experiment was to examine the independent and interactive effects of three variables—attentional demand, cue typicality, and priming—on an event‐based prospective memory task. High attentional demand was expected to lower performance, but cue typicality and priming were expected to improve performance. The prospective memory task entailed writing an ‘X’ after hearing items from four semantic categories (e.g. birds), while performing a free‐association task. Results showed the predicted effects of attentional demand and typicality. Priming did not affect overall prospective memory performance but, as predicted, improved performance under conditions of high attentional demand with a typical cue. Overall, these results show the importance of cue and capacity variables, but they also support the value of examining how different variables in the prospective memory task can interact in affecting performance. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The Rhythm Method: A New Method for Measuring Cognitive Load—An Experimental Dual‐Task Study

The present study joins a series of studies that used the dual‐task paradigm to measure cognitive load while learning with multimedia instruction. The goal of the current work was to develop a secondary task, to measure cognitive load in a direct and continuous way using intra‐individual, behavioral measures. The new task is achieved by utilizing internalized cues. More specifically, a previously practiced rhythm is executed continuously by foot tapping (secondary task) while learning (primary task). Precision of the executed rhythm was used as indicator for cognitive load—the higher the precision, the lower cognitive load. The suitability of this method was examined by two multimedia experiments (n₁ = 30; n₂ = 50). Cognitive load was manipulated by seductive details (Experiment 1: with vs. without) and modality (Experiment 2: on‐screen text vs. narration). Learners who learned under low cognitive load conditions (Experiment 1: without seductive details; Experiment 2: narration) showed significantly higher rhythm precision. These results provide evidence that rhythm precision allows for a precise and continuous measurement of cognitive load during learning. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响

采用视空工作记忆任务和真实场景搜索任务相结合的双任务范式, 结合眼动技术将搜索过程划分为起始阶段、扫描阶段和确认阶段, 探究视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响机制, 同时考查试次间搜索目标是否变化、目标模板的具体化程度以及搜索场景画面的视觉混乱度所起的调节作用。结果表明, 视空工作记忆负载会降低真实场景搜索的成绩, 在搜索过程中表现为视空负载条件下扫描阶段持续时间的延长、注视点数目的增加和空间负载条件下确认阶段持续时间的延长, 视空负载对搜索过程的影响与目标模板的具体化程度有关; 空间负载会降低真实场景搜索的效率, 且与搜索画面的视觉混乱度有关, 而客体负载则不会。由此可见, 视空工作记忆负载对真实场景搜索绩效的影响不同, 空间负载对搜索过程的影响比客体负载更长久, 二者均受到目标模板具体化程度的调节; 仅空间负载会降低真实场景的搜索效率, 且受到搜索场景画面视觉混乱度的调节。     

Instance‐based Learning: A General Model of Repeated Binary Choice

A common practice in cognitive modeling is to develop new models specific to each particular task. We question this approach and draw on an existing theory, instance‐based learning theory (IBLT), to explain learning behavior in three different choice tasks. The same instance‐based learning model generalizes accurately to choices in a repeated binary choice task, in a probability learning task, and in a repeated binary choice task within a changing environment. We assert that, although the three tasks are different, the source of learning is equivalent and therefore, the cognitive process elicited should be captured by one single model. This evidence supports previous findings that instance‐based learning is a robust learning process that is triggered in a wide range of tasks from the simple repeated choice tasks to the most dynamic decision making tasks. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adult brains don't fully overcome biases that lead to incorrect performance during cognitive development: an fMRI study in young adults completing a Piaget‐like task

A current issue in developmental science is that greater continuity in cognition between children and adults may exist than is usually appreciated in Piaget‐like (stages or ‘staircase’) models. This phenomenon has been demonstrated at the behavioural level, but never at the brain level. Here we show with functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), for the first time, that adult brains do not fully overcome the biases of childhood. More specifically, the aim of this fMRI study was to evaluate whether the perceptual bias that leads to incorrect performance during cognitive development in a Piaget‐like task is still a bias in the adult brain and hence requires an executive network to overcome it. Here, we compared two numerical‐judgment tasks, one being a Piaget‐like task with number–length interference (called ‘INT’) and the other being a control task with number–length covariation (‘COV’). We also used a colour‐detection task to control for stimuli numerosity, spatial distribution, and frequency. Our behavioural results confirmed that INT remains a difficult task for young adults. Indeed, response times were significantly higher in INT than in COV. Moreover, we observed that only in INT did response times increase linearly as a function of the number of items. The fMRI results indicate that the brain network common to INT and COV shows a large rightward functional asymmetry, emphasizing the visuospatial nature of these two tasks. When INT was compared with COV, activations were found within a right frontal network, including the pre‐supplementary motor area, the anterior cingulate cortex, and the middle frontal gyrus, which probably reflect detection of the number/length conflict and inhibition of the ‘length‐equals‐number’ response strategy. Finally, activations related to visuospatial and quantitative processing, enhanced or specifically recruited in the Piaget‐like task, were found in bilateral posterior areas.