Mental Health Practitioners: The Relationship Between White Racial Identity Attitudes and Self‐Reported Multicultural Counseling Competencies

This study documents the relationship between White racial identity development and multicultural counseling competency (MCC) as reported by mental health practitioners. Initial results were generally consistent with J. E. Helms's (1990) construction of White racial identity attitude development theory. More sophisticated statuses of White racial identity development generally correlated with higher levels of perceived MCC. Overall, there was a significant difference in MCC reported between men and women. Among counselors, conflicting relationships were observed between some racial identity statuses and multicultural competencies (skills, relationship).     

White Racial Identity: Science,Faith, and Pseudoscience

J. E. Helms's (1995b) White racial identity theory is said to resemble a pseudoscience in certain respects because its empirical support is based on the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990) in spite of consistent evidence that the instrument does not measure the constructs that the theory proposes. J. E. Helms's (1995b) la teoría racial blanca de la identidad se dice para asemejarse a un seudociencia en ciertos respeto porque su apoyo empírico se basa en la Escala Racial Blanca de la Actitud de la Identidad (J. E. Helms & R. T. Carter, 1990) a pesar de la constante evidencia que el instrumento no mide el constructo que la teoría propone.     

White Male Identity Development: The Key Model

The authors present the Key model, a model of White male identity development. The theoretical underpinnings of J. Helms's (1990) White Racial Identity Development Model, other relevant identity models, as well as information on male gender role socialization are presented in relation to their influence on the Key model's development. Implications for counselors are provided for each component (phase) of the model.     

Race and Nation: How Racial Hierarchy Shapes National Attachments

We contend that the boundaries and nature of national attachments are shaped by the position of one's group within America's racial order, with higher status yielding more racially exclusive forms of identity. We test our claims in the realm of xenophobia. Using an original survey of African Americans (n = 1,000) and Whites (n = 1,000), we assess national pride, nationalism, nativism, and racial identity, plus affect toward various immigrant groups. We establish that national attachments have racially varied meanings, thereby producing sharp differences in each racial group's response to foreigners. Although national pride is unrelated to White antipathy toward outsiders, nationalism and nativism increase White hostility to immigrants—except when they are White. In contrast, national pride diminishes African American hostility to Black and non‐Black immigrants, while nativism is generally unrelated to Black antipathy to outsiders. Finally, while nationalism heightens xenophobia among Blacks, this sentiment envelops all foreigners—including African immigrants. We discuss our results' implications for theories of national attachment in intergroup settings.     

Two-Headed Coins or Kandinskys: White Racial Identification

Racial identity means different things to members of different racial and ethnic groups in the United States. However, while the study of race and politics is often the study of White racial attitudes ( Dawson & Cohen, 2003 ), research on racial identity almost always refers to non-White identity. This article addresses this hole in the literature by examining the extent and effects of White identity. We compare White identification and Black identification using National Election Studies data (1972–2000) and examine the relationships between racial identity and racial and political attitudes. This study adds a missing case to the study of racial identity, tests how well the theories about the concept travel across cases, and highlights the need for more frequent studies of the racial identity of all groups.     

Emotions and White Racial Identity Status Attitudes

Relationships between emotional states and White racial identity status attitudes (Helms, 1984 , 1990) were tested on a sample of 286 White students. The stimulus was a vignette in which one condition involved explicit racial information and one did not. Participants rated baseline and posttest emotions and completed the White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (Helms & Carter, 1990 ). In the race condition, levels of posttest fear decreased as levels of autonomy status attitudes increased. Se realizó un test sobre las relaciones entre los estados emocionales y las actitudes de estado de identidad racial blanca (Helms, 1984 , 1990) en una muestra de 286 estudiantes blancos. El estímulo fue una viñeta en la cual una de las condiciones incluía información racial explícita y otra no. Los participantes evaluaron las emociones de referencia y con posterioridad al test, y completaron la Escala de Actitudes de Identidad Racial Blanca (Helms & Carter, 1990 ). En la condición de raza explícita, los niveles de miedo con posterioridad al test disminuyeron, mientras que los niveles de actitudes de estado de autonomía aumentaron.     

The Relationship of the Racial Identity Attitudes of Black Men to Perceptions of “Parallel” Counseling Dyads

The perceptions that Black men (N = 52) have of “parallel” dyads involving a Black male client and a White male counselor were examined in a vicarious participation analogue design. As defined by Helms (1984b), parallel dyad involves a client and counselor who share similar racial identity attitudes (i.e., attitudes about themselves relative to Blacks and Whites as reference groups). Multiple regression analyses were used to investigate whether racial identity attitudes predicted participants' reactions to the session and their perceptions of the counselors' cross-cultural competence and credibility. The results of the study indicated that racial identity attitudes significantly predicted participants' immediate reactions to the counselor. We used Helms's (1984b) interaction model to discuss the results and their implications for counseling practice and research.     

Negotiating Racial Identity

Abstract

Counseling research on racial identity development among multiracial people has largely overlooked the complexity of these individuals' social experiences and how their multiple realities result in various racial identities. The assumptions that individuals with one Black and one White parent can only understand themselves as “Black” or “biracial” have been socially, culturally and politically constructed, providing a misguided foundation for models of racial identity. Here, we present findings from a study of 177 biracial individuals that illustrate the multidimensionality of racial identity among this population. We focus on the mechanism of interactional validation in identity construction to better understand the particular dilemmas faced by biracial women and formulate appropriate therapeutic approaches.     

Assumed race moderates spontaneous racial bias in a computer‐based police simulation

We demonstrated that playing the roles of different outgroup races can elicit extrapersonal racial bias associated with respective racial groups. In a modified version of a computer‐based police simulation, the police officer's race was visually manipulated to be either Black or White. Korean participants made quick decisions whether to shoot targets (Black or White, armed or unarmed) on screen. Comparison of behavioral bias in the task revealed that, as expected, playing the role of a White police officer was associated with a stronger bias against Black targets compared to playing a Black police officer's role. The result suggests that when a social category is activated, one's race‐related behavior can reflect one's beliefs about the biases that members of that category hold.     

Race-Based Stress in White Adults: Exploring the Role of White Racial Identity Status Attitudes and Type of Racial Events

The impact of racial experiences on Whites has been underresearched and has rarely been considered traumatic. To understand these experiences, it is important to consider variation in one's orientation to their racial group (i.e., racial identity) and the type of racial encounter. Using a White adult sample and hierarchical cluster analysis, the authors found that reactions to race-based encounters were associated with varying levels of psychological distress and well-being and racial identity statuses. Clinical implications are discussed. El impacto de las experiencias raciales en personas blancas no ha sido suficientemente investigado y en raras ocasiones ha sido considerado traumático. Para comprender estas experiencias, es importante considerar la variación en la orientación de cada individuo hacia su grupo racial (es decir, la identidad racial) y el tipo de encuentro racial. Usando una muestra de personas adultas blancas y un análisis jerárquico de clústeres, los autores hallaron que las reacciones a los encuentros raciales estaban asociadas a niveles variables de malestar psicológico, así como de estados de bienestar e identidad racial.     

Asian American Intermarriage

SUMMARY

This paper describes the therapeutic process of an interracial couple: an Asian American woman and a White American man. The intent of this therapy was to broaden the conversational space and encourage the couple to explore the effects of cultural beliefs and practices on their relationship. The therapist introduced two approaches for evoking the couple's interest in sharing narratives about their individual and couple racial identity. One approach was to have the couple interview their partner's “internalized other.” The other approach used two research studies to stimulate conversation about outmarriage with Asian Americans. This case study offers an account of two different ways individual narratives and shared conversational space can be expanded.     

Patterns of critical consciousness and associations with sociocultural factors in black adolescents

Critical consciousness includes an understanding of structural oppression, agency to act and actions to redress oppression. Questions remain regarding how youth's experiences with oppression and their social identities might relate to their critical consciousness. In this study, we explored associations between critical consciousness (critical reflection, critical agency, and action) and sociocultural factors (racial identity, racial socialization, and racial stress) among Black adolescents (n = 604; M_age = 15.44, SD = 1.24). We used latent profile analysis and identified four profiles of critical consciousness: Precritical Bystander (62.7%), Liberated Actor (19.9%), Precritical Actor (10.8%), and Acritical Bystander (6.6%). These profiles were distinct in critical reflection, critical agency, and critical action. Next, we examined associations between critical consciousness profiles and sociocultural factors. We found that profile membership was differentially associated with some aspects of racial identity, racial socialization, and racial stress. These findings suggest that there are specific patterns of critical consciousness among Black youth which are differentially associated with racial identity, racial socialization that emphasizes cultural pride, and experiences of cultural racism. Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article's Community and Social Impact Statement .     

The New Color Complex: Appearances and Biracial Identity

Ethnic identity research has largely focused on the identity choices of White ethnics (Alba, 1990; Ignatiev, 1995; Waters, 1990). One key factor in these choices is bodily appearance. We extend this research to Black and White Biracial individuals and examine the role that physical appearance plays in their "choices" of racial identity. We test Rockquemore's (1999) taxonomy of Biracial identity using survey data from a sample of 177 Biracial respondents. The results indicate that Biracial individuals do make choices within circumscribed cultural contexts and these understandings are influenced not by skin color, but by an actor's assumption of how others perceive his or her appearance.     

Disavowing White Identity: How Social Disgust can Change Social Identities

Recent work finds that the sense of solidarity some whites feel with their racial group is strongly associated with their political attitudes, particularly since the election of Barack Obama. Prior work has also noted that levels of this identity have been stable across time and data sources. We, however, document a notable decline in levels of white identity in both panel and cross-sectional national survey data immediately after the 2016 presidential election. Using a two-wave panel design, we examine the factors associated with this decline. We examine whether particular emotional reactions, especially disgust toward Donald Trump, pushed some whites away from their racial identity. We also consider the possibility that some whites may have felt that Trump's election reduced perceptions of racial or political threat, therefore lowering levels of white identity. We find the strongest support for the former hypothesis; the decline in white identity was driven mostly by whites expressing disgust toward Trump. Our results highlight the effect that the political environment can have on group identities and point in particular to the significant role that disgust may play in attenuating the strength of group solidarity.     

Assessing White Racial Identity: The White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS)

Prior to the ready availability of Helms and Carter's (1990) White Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS-W), Claney and Parker (1989) developed the White Racial Consciousness Development Scale (WRCDS). Using this device they reported finding a curvilinear relationship between the stage of racial identity or consciousness of Whites and their comfort with African American persons. Recently, the WRCDS seems to be gaining acceptance by scholars working in the area of White racial identity. Data, however, are presented suggesting that the WRCDS lacks adequate reliability and concurrent validity and that the findings and future use of the instrument should be questioned.     

The Racialization of International Trade

Despite their less vulnerable economic status, white individuals' attitudes toward overseas trade in the United States may have become more protectionist than those of economically disadvantaged minorities. We present results from five different studies examining two different ways in which trade may have become racialized. First, we examine the extent to which a person's racial identity is associated with levels of trade support. Second, we examine whether the predominant racial identity of a potential trading-partner country influences people's willingness to trade with that country. Using various surveys and multiple survey experiments conducted over the past 12 years, we find that white individuals have become less supportive of trade than minorities and that whites are more likely than minorities to favor trade with highly similar countries. We suggest that minority support for trade is due to four well-documented differences in the psychological predispositions of whites and minorities in the United States. Minorities have lower levels of racial prejudice, are lower in social dominance, and express less nationalism than whites. At the same time, there is evidence of rising ingroup racial consciousness among whites. Each of these characteristics has been independently linked to trade support in a direction encouraging greater support for trade among minorities. As the United States grows ever closer to becoming a “majority minority” nation, the racialization of trade attitudes may stimulate shifts in the likely future of America's trade relationships.     

Racial Differences in Perceptions of Starting Salaries: How Failing to Discriminate Can Perpetuate Discrimination

Despite recent findings suggesting the presence of racial differences in the perception of starting salaries, researchers have yet to empirically investigate this possibility. Consequently, this study examined the interactive effects of race, ethnic identity, and starting salaries on the salary perceptions of 342 undergraduates. Hispanic, Asian American, and White participants exhibited positive effects of salary whereas Black respondents failed to discriminate between the different salaries. However, a three-way interaction involving ethnic identity, race, and salary revealed a more complex pattern of responses for Black participants: Higher ethnic identifiers responded similarly to Hispanic, White, and Asian Americans. The implications of these results regarding the perpetuation of racial wage inequity are discussed.     

The Relationship Between Racism and Racial Identity for White Americans: A Profile Analysis

This investigation examined how racial identity profiles, using J. E. Helms's (1996) profile scoring procedure, were related to racist attitudes. One finding showed that participants with an undifferentiated or flat profile scored significantly higher in racist attitudes than participants with other racial identity profiles. Implications for counseling practice and research are discussed. Esta investigación examina cómo los perfiles de identidad racial se relacionan con las actitudes racistas, utilizando el procedimiento de evaluar perfiles de J. E. Helms (1996). Un resultado encontró que los participantes con un perfil piano o no‐diferenciado obtuvieron mejores resultados en las actitudes raciales que los participantes con otros perfiles de identidad racial. Se evalúan también las consecuencias para la práctica de consejería y las investigaciones.     

Developing cognitions about race: White 5‐ to 10‐year‐olds' perceptions of hardship and pain

White American adults assume that Blacks feel less pain than do Whites, but only if they believe that Blacks have faced greater economic hardship than Whites. The current study investigates when in development children first recognize racial group differences in economic hardship and examines whether perceptions of hardship inform children's racial bias in pain perception. Five‐ to 10‐year‐olds (N = 178) guessed which of two items (low versus high value) belonged to a Black and a White child and rated the amount of pain a Black and a White child would feel in 10 painful situations. By age 5, White American children attributed lower‐value possessions to Blacks than Whites, indicating a recognition of racial group differences in economic hardship. The results also replicated the emergence of a racial bias in pain perception between 5 and 10. However, unlike adults', children's perceptions of hardship do not account for racial bias in pain perception.     

Womanist Identity and Mental Health

The authors explored the relationship between Helms's “womanist identity” attitudes and the mental health of Black and White women. Results showed that Black and White women have different patterns of responses to both womanist and mental health scales. For White women in the sample, Immersion-Emersion and, to a lesser extent, Encounter attitudes were related to 7 types of psychological symptomatology. For Black women, no such relationship between womanist attitudes and mental health was found.