On the acceptability of biopharmaceuticals

The issues relating to the licensing of a biopharmaceutical are described. In particular attention is focused on the mind of the regulator who has the responsibility of recommending licensure. There are two key factors which operate on the mind when confronted with such a task: psychology and ethics. The different factors which influence the psychological acceptability of a product for licensure are many and varied; they include perceived need, novelty, education, context and others. Also involved is the regulator’s view of the ethicality of such products and the organisms which make them, with particular reference to those which are genetically engineered. These ethical views are in turn derived by reference to basic systems of ethics which provide guidelines for behavior. It is important for the manufacturers of biopharmaceuticals to be aware of both the psychological and ethical aspects of the regulator’s mind when addressing such individuals with a view to obtaining a license to manufacture a particular biopharmaceutical.     

Ethical considerations in the use of computers in psychological testing and assessment

Ethical considerations in the use of computers in psychological testing and assessment are discussed. Particular attention is given to existing ethics and standards that provide guidance to users of computerized test interpretation and report-writing programs. Issues covering professional accountability and confidentiality are also discussed as they relate to computer-assisted assessment. Areas of appropriate use of computers in testing and assessment are suggested, including test scoring, the analysis of scores, and generating remedial recommendations. Findings are summarized and several guidelines are suggested for users of computers in testing and assessment.     

Ethical considerations in the management of military related concussion

Since the year 2000 over 300,000 military service members have been diagnosed with mild traumatic brain injury/concussion. Consequently, this injury has become the subject of increased awareness and study within the military healthcare environment. Although single and/or isolated concussions typically heal in a relatively rapid fashion with limited to no long-term sequelae, there is debate in the field about the impact of repeat concussion. To this end, various ethical challenges arise when managing patients with such injuries. Several papers outlining these issues with regard to athletes have been published in the sports medicine literature. However, because providers caring for military service members must make return-to-duty-decisions, practice within the military setting results in a number of unique ethical considerations. More specifically, management of service members with a history of repeat concussion and increasingly complicated recoveries, as well as the potential for premature return-to-duty are topics of concern for military health care providers. Using the American Psychological Association ethical principles and standards, the current article outlines various ethical challenges to concussion management in the military setting. The ethical principles of Beneficence and Nonmaleficence and Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity, as well as the 3 related ethical standards of Competence, Avoiding Harm, and Conflict of Interest are discussed. Policy changes are highlighted as a proximal solution to these ethical challenges.     

Toward ethical cognitive architectures for the development of artificial moral agents

New technologies based on artificial agents promise to change the next generation of autonomous systems and therefore our interaction with them. Systems based on artificial agents such as self-driving cars and social robots are examples of this technology that is seeking to improve the quality of people’s life. Cognitive architectures aim to create some of the most challenging artificial agents commonly known as bio-inspired cognitive agents. This type of artificial agent seeks to embody human-like intelligence in order to operate and solve problems in the real world as humans do. Moreover, some cognitive architectures such as Soar, LIDA, ACT-R, and iCub try to be fundamental architectures for the Artificial General Intelligence model of human cognition. Therefore, researchers in the machine ethics field face ethical questions related to what mechanisms an artificial agent must have for making moral decisions in order to ensure that their actions are always ethically right. This paper aims to identify some challenges that researchers need to solve in order to create ethical cognitive architectures. These cognitive architectures are characterized by the capacity to endow artificial agents with appropriate mechanisms to exhibit explicit ethical behavior. Additionally, we offer some reasons to develop ethical cognitive architectures. We hope that this study can be useful to guide future research on ethical cognitive architectures.     

Ethical considerations in the supervision of applied sport psychology graduate students

Abstract

Some of the most important relationships that a sport psychologist experiences in his or her career are between the supervisor and supervisee in applied practica and internships. These relationships may become models for future professional and ethical behavior with colleagues, students, and clients, and thus deserve careful examination. Ethics form a foundation for practice, and while classroom discussions of ethical issues help educate graduate students, the supervisor-supervisee relationship may provide a hands-on experience of ethical dilemmas and ethical problem solving. Ethics in supervisor-supervisee relationships cover at least two broad areas. First, there is the supervisor's monitoring and mentoring of ethical considerations in the supervisee's relationship with the athlete-client. Second, ethical questions arise in the relationship between the supervisor and the supervisee. The present paper includes discussion of general supervisory issues (e.g., modeling ethical behavior, helping develop counseling skills) and explores the specific ethical problems of referring for counseling, intimacy, and exploitation. Also, three case examples illustrate ethical concerns that may appear in the process of applied sport psychology supervision. Broadening education in ethical issues in supervision for both psychology and exercise science graduate programs may help future practitioners better serve their clients.     

Ethical questions in the age of the new eugenics

As a result of the publicly funded Human Genome Project (HGP), and an increasing number of private enterprises, a new form of eugenic theory and practice has emerged, differing from previous manifestations. Genetic testing has become a consumer service that may now be purchased at greatly reduced cost. While the old eugenics was pseudoscientific, the new eugenics is firmly based on DNA research. While the old eugenics focused on societal measures against the individual, the new eugenics emphasizes the family as a control agent. Eugenics is now voluntary, with the promise of abortion for those afraid of producing genetically damaged children. The ethical concepts of beneficence, avoidance of maleficence, autonomy, and equity are discussed in terms of aspects of the HGP. One major issue is the need for an ethical system available to health consumers that will empower them and assist in their biogenic decisions. “The concentration on the genes implicated in cancer is only a special case of a general genomania (emphasis added) that surfaces in ... the weekly announcements in The New York Times of the location of yet another gene for another disease. The revealing rhetoric of this publicity is always the same; only the blanks need to be filled in: ‘It was announced today by scientists at [Harvard, Vanderbilt, Stanford] Medical School that a gene responsible for [some, many, a common form of] [schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s, arteriosclerosis, prostate cancer] has been located and its DNA sequence determined. This exciting research, say scientists, is the first step in what may eventually turn out to be a possible cure for this disease.’” Lewontin ¹ Portions of this paper were presented at the Eighth National Conference on Applied Ethics, Long Beach, CA, February 27, 28 and March 1, 1997.     

Ethical considerations in the use of nonerotic touch in psychotherapy with children

Although touch frequently occurs in psychotherapy with children, there is little written on the ethical considerations of therapeutic touch. Because physical contact does occur, therapists must consider if, how, and when it is used, for both their clients' safety and their own. In this review, I further develop the issues suggested by Aquino and Lee (2000) in the use of nurturing touch in therapy by considering many types of touch that occur in psychotherapy with children; the possible positive role of touch; clients' perception of touch in therapy; considerations related to the therapist, the child's safety, and any history of abuse in the child's and family's background; and other practical considerations. I list guidelines.     

2008 Revision of the Chinese Code of Ethical Use of Psychological Tests and Its Implementation Status

In response to the rapidly increasing application and abuse of psychological tests in China, the Psychometrics Division of the Chinese Psychological Society published the 2008 revisions of the Chinese Code of Ethical Use of Psychological Tests. We investigated the implementation status of the code 2½ years after its promulgation. Sample included 284 psychological professionals and psychology graduate students. The average accuracy rate for the appropriate use of psychological tests was 67.1% (range = 25.5–97.5%), with 10 items having accuracy rates below 45%. Participants remained uncertain about the clients' rights to information about the purpose, psychometric properties, and scores of the tests. The most frequent violations involved “using psychological tests without psychometric information for entertainment purposes” and “using SCL-90 to measure mental health of normal people.”     

Can we disregard the whole model? Omnibus non-inferiority testing for R2 in multi-variable linear regression and in ANOVA

Determining a lack of association between an outcome variable and a number of different explanatory variables is frequently necessary in order to disregard a proposed model (i.e., to confirm the lack of a meaningful association between an outcome and predictors). Despite this, the literature rarely offers information about, or technical recommendations concerning, the appropriate statistical methodology to be used to accomplish this task. This paper introduces non-inferiority tests for ANOVA and linear regression analyses, which correspond to the standard widely used F test for and R², respectively. A simulation study is conducted to examine the Type I error rates and statistical power of the tests, and a comparison is made with an alternative Bayesian testing approach. The results indicate that the proposed non-inferiority test is a potentially useful tool for ‘testing the null’.     

Ethical Decision Making and Research Deception in the Behavioral Sciences: An Application of Social Contract Theory

Despite significant ethical advances in recent years, including professional developments in ethical review and codification, research deception continues to be a pervasive practice and contentious focus of debate in the behavioral sciences. Given the disciplines' generally stated ethical standards regarding the use of deceptive procedures, researchers have little practical guidance as to their ethical acceptability in specific research contexts. We use social contract theory to identify the conditions under which deception may or may not be morally permissible and formulate practical recommendations to guide researchers on the ethical employment of deception in behavioral science research.     

Filling in the gaps: using testing and restudy to promote associative learning

Although testing has been shown to potentiate subsequent learning [Izawa, C. (1966). Reinforcement-test sequences in paired-associate learning. Psychological Reports, 18, 879–919.], the mechanisms that influence this effect are not entirely understood. The present research examined the relationship between associative binding and test-potentiation effects. We hypothesised that test-potentiation effects would be most pronounced when participants could easily extract the relationship among word groupings. Towards that end, we compared three-word groupings, or triads, that were either semantically related or unrelated. Participants engaged in repeated study, repeated testing, or engaged in interpolated study and test prior to a final test. Final test performance was greatest for participants who engaged in interpolated study and test on related triads. The results support three primary conclusions: (1) testing aids in associative binding; (2) associative binding is facilitated by retrieval practice and restudy pairings; and (3) pre-existing associations facilitate test-potentiation effects.     

Modern Advances in Genetic Testing: Ethical Challenges and Training Implications for Current and Future Psychologists

The ethical implications for psychological practice of genetic testing are largely unexplored. Predictive testing can have a significant impact on health and well-being, and increasing numbers of individuals with knowledge of their risk for various disorders are likely to present for psychotherapy. In addition, more people will struggle with the decision of whether to obtain information regarding their genetic material. Psychologists will need to have the appropriate knowledge and clinical skills to effectively counsel this population. This article highlights the relevant ethical issues surrounding psychological treatment of individuals pursuing or considering undergoing genetic testing. These issues are extended to psychologists working in research, education, and policy domains. Recommendations for graduate training programs to facilitate current and future practitioner competence are also discussed.     

Ethical dilemmas in testing for late onset conditions: reactions to testing and perceived impact on other family members

This paper examines some of the ethical dilemmas that arise when testing for the late onset, untreatable condition of Huntington disease (HD) specifically now that technology allows us to test younger generations of the family for the mutant gene. Drawing on interview data from families with Huntington disease, the reactions to testing and perceived impact on other family members are considered. These are discussed in the light of the possible lowering of the age of test applicants. This potentially raises problems for a younger generation as they are confronted with reproductive decisions that the older generation did not have to face. It also means that individuals have the prospect of living with knowledge of a future illness for much longer.     

Reprint of: Working with religious and spiritual athletes: Ethical considerations for sport psychologists

With a growing number of sport performers revealing their religious and spiritual beliefs, it is becoming increasingly important for sport psychologists to recognize and appreciate the values (and value systems) to which such beliefs are attached. Using the RRICC model (Plante, 2007) as a framework for discussion, and through the lens of cultural praxis, the purpose of this article is to highlight ethical issues for sport psychologists when working with religious and spiritual athletes. The RRICC model addresses the ethical principles of respect, responsibility, integrity, competence, and concern. It is hoped that a discussion of these guidelines will help sport psychologists better navigate the often challenging landscape of working with athletes whose everyday lives and identities are grounded in religious and spiritual association.