The relationships between body mass and body image and relative autonomy for exercise among adolescent males and females

ObjectivesThis study examined the impact of body mass and body image on autonomous motivation for exercise among adolescents. It was predicted that body mass and body size discrepancies would be curvilinearly related to relative autonomy because, from a self-determination theory perspective, being or perceiving that one is under- or over-sized would be experienced as pressure to conform to culturally transmitted standards of an ideal physique, undermining one's sense of autonomy.DesignCross-sectional comparative study.MethodsFifty males (mean age 16.90) and 48 females (mean age 16.88) completed measures of relative autonomy for exercise, discrepancies between perceived and ideal body size, body mass index and physical activity.ResultsHierarchical polynomial regression analyses showed that among males relative autonomy was predicted by both body mass and body size discrepancies. The relationships took an inverted-u form: autonomy was at its maximum when body mass index was around 18.50 and when body size discrepancies were zero. Among females, relative autonomy was predicted by body size discrepancies alone and the relationship was r-shaped: autonomy increased as body size discrepancies became less negative, reaching a maximum and leveling off when the discrepancy was +1.ConclusionsThe gender difference in the effect of body mass and perceived body size discrepancies on autonomous motivation for exercise could be explained by different socio-cultural expectations for males and females in Western societies. For females the cultural norm is a thin and toned physique whereas for males it is a muscular mesomorphic build that is neither thin nor fat.     

The effects of leader gender on self-presentational concerns in exercise

The present study examined the impact of the exercise leader's gender on the self-presentational concerns of women in a live exercise class. Eighty-seven college-aged non- or infrequent exercisers participated in a group exercise class led by either a female or male instructor. Participants completed measures of Self-Presentational Efficacy (SPE), State Social Anxiety (SSA) and State Social Physique Anxiety (SPA-S) prior to and following completion of a group exercise class. A repeated measures Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA), with time as the within-subjects factor and leader gender as the between-subjects factor, was conducted. A significant main effect for time was found (F(3, 80) = 19.65, p < 0.001). Estimated marginal means indicated that all participants reported significantly higher SPE and lower SSA and SPA-S post-exercise. Completing an exercise class may override any self-presentational concerns that can arise from the exercise environment. Future studies should adopt ecologically valid research designs to gain a clearer picture of self-presentational concerns in exercise classes.     

Self-Presentation in Exercise Contexts: Differences Between High and Low Frequency Exercisers

The present study investigated the relationship between cognitive manifestations of self-presentation (social physique anxiety, self-presentational efficacy, impression motivation, and exercise imagery) and exercise behavior in 235 female exercisers. Each participant completed the Social Physique Anxiety Scale, a measure of self-presentational efficacy, the impression motivation subscale of the Self-Presentation in Exercise Questionnaire, and the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire. The results of a MANCOVA indicated high-frequency exercisers reported higher levels of efficacy expectancy, outcome value, and exercise imagery than did low-frequency exercisers. Semi-partial correlations showed efficacy expectancy, outcome expectancy, and appearance imagery each accounted for significant variance in social physique anxiety, independent of other predictors. Self-presentational efficacy expectancy appears to be a potent variable in both exercise behavior and social physique anxiety.     

The effects of aerobic- versus strength-training on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns

This experiment compared the effects of aerobic-training (AT) versus strength-training (ST) on body image among young women with pre-existing body image concerns. Theory-based correlates of body image change were also examined. Participants were 46 women (M age = 21.5 years), randomly assigned to an 8-week AT or ST intervention consisting of supervised exercise 3 days/week. Multidimensional measures of body image were administered pre- and post-intervention, along with measures of physical fitness, perceived fitness, and exercise self-efficacy. Women in the AT condition reported greater reductions in social physique anxiety (p = .001) and tended to report greater improvements in appearance evaluation (p = .06) than women in the ST condition. Changes in perceived fatness, perceived aerobic endurance and aerobic self-efficacy were significantly correlated with body image change (ps < .003). Results provide direction for prescribing exercise to improve body image and advancing theory to account for the effects of exercise.     

Mediators of affective responses to acute exercise among women with high social physique anxiety

ObjectivesThis study represents ancillary analyses of data published by Raedeke, Focht, and Scales [2007. Social environmental factors and psychological responses to acute exercise for socially physique anxious females. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 8, 463–487] and examines whether enjoyment or task self-efficacy mediated the relationship between exercise environment (health- or appearance-oriented class atmosphere) and affective responses/future intentions or had independent associations with those outcomes.Design/MethodsAs a context in which to examine mediational relationships, volunteer female college students (N = 99) with high social physique anxiety scores were randomly assigned to a health- or appearance-oriented condition. They completed affect and task self-efficacy measures pre- and post-exercise. Enjoyment and intentions were assessed post-exercise.Results/ConclusionsEnjoyment mediated the relationship of class atmosphere on overall feeling as well as revitalization and exhaustion and partially mediated the relationship of class orientation with engagement and future intentions. Although task self-efficacy was an independent predictor of affective responses and intentions, it did not significantly mediate the effect of the social environment on these outcomes.     

Psychological need satisfaction,intrinsic motivation and affective response to exercise in adolescents

ObjectivesTo further understanding of the factors influencing adolescents' motivations for physical activity, the relationship of variables derived from Self-Determination Theory to adolescents' affective response to exercise was examined.DesignCorrelational.MethodAdolescents (N = 182) self-reported psychological needs satisfaction (perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy) and intrinsic motivation related to exercise. In two clinic visits, adolescents reported their affect before, during, and after a moderate-intensity and a hard-intensity exercise task.ResultsAffective response to exercise and psychological needs satisfaction independently contributed to the prediction of intrinsic motivation in hierarchical linear regression models. The association between affective response to exercise and intrinsic motivation was partially mediated by psychological needs satisfaction.ConclusionsIntrinsic motivation for exercise among adolescents may be enhanced when the environment supports perceived competence, relatedness, and autonomy, and when adolescents participate in activities that they find enjoyable.     

The effect of choice of exercise mode on psychological responses

Objectives: Choice has been linked to both motivation and psychological responses to exercise. This paper investigates participants’ psychological responses when they completed an exercise session where there was a high-preference exercise mode as opposed to a low-preference exercise mode. High- and low-preference were established by participants indicating their preferred choice of exercise from three standard modes used for aerobic work.Method: Participants were 20 low-active adults who exercised for 20 min on each mode of exercise (high-preference versus low-preference). Affect, ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were recorded every 5 min during exercise, and affect and HR were assessed pre-exercise and 5 min post-exercise.Results: Repeated measures analysis of variance revealed condition and time main effects for affect sub-scales and RPE and a time main effect for HR. Affect sub-scales, RPE and HR generally increased over time. RPE, Fatigue and Psychological Distress were higher in the low-preference condition and positive well-being was higher in the high-preference condition.Conclusions: Affect and RPE were influenced by the preferred choice manipulation. Affect was more positive, and RPE lower, in the high-preference versus low-preference condition while work rate remained constant across conditions.     

Similar improvements in inhibitory control following low-volume high-intensity interval exercise and moderate-intensity continuous exercise

ObjectivesWe previously demonstrated that a traditional high-volume (HV) high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) was more effective in improving post-exercise inhibitory control (IC) than moderate-intensity continuous exercise (MCE). Nevertheless, because HV-HIIE is performed with a higher volume and longer duration, it may result in decreased adherence to this exercise for some individuals. In this study, we compared the effect of a practical low-volume (LV) HIIE to that of MCE on post-exercise IC improvements.DesignTwenty healthy males performed both LV-HIIE and MCE on a cycle ergometer in a crossover design.MethodLV-HIIE was consisted of ten 1-min bouts at 90% of the peak oxygen consumption (VO_{2 peak}) with 1-min active recovery at 30% of VO_{2 peak}, which had a total duration of 20 min. MCE was performed for 40 min at 60% of VO_{2 peak}. To evaluate IC, the Stroop test was administered before exercise, immediately after exercise, and every 10 min during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period.ResultsIC significantly improved immediately after LV-HIIE and MCE compared with that before each exercise (both Ps < 0.05). The improved IC remained significant until the 20-min post-exercise recovery period for both protocols (all Ps < 0.05). The degrees of post-exercise IC improvements throughout the 30-min post-exercise recovery period did not differ significantly between protocols.ConclusionsThese findings demonstrated that despite lower exercise volume and shorter exercise duration, LV-HIIE could improve post-exercise IC similar to MCE.     

“I deserve a treat”: Exercise motivation as a predictor of post-exercise dietary licensing beliefs and implicit associations toward unhealthy snacks

ObjectiveTo explore whether exercise motivation predicted two of the potential mechanisms that may explain why individuals engage in unhealthy compensatory snack consumption following exercise; specifically (a) post-exercise conscious licensing beliefs, and (b) post-exercise implicit attitudes toward unhealthy snacks.DesignObservational study.MethodOne hundred and nineteen healthy participants completed a 40-min session of moderate intensity stationary cycling, and subsequently completed measures of explicit licensing and implicit associations toward unhealthy snack foods and drinks.ResultsIndividuals driven by more controlled (relative to autonomous) forms of exercise motivation reported greater compensatory licensing beliefs (Est = −0.08, p < 0.001) even after accounting for a number of relevant covariates. No significant relationship emerged between exercise motivation and implicit associations toward unhealthy snacks (Est = 0.12, p = 0.81).ConclusionThe findings demonstrate that exercise motivation may predict conscious licensing beliefs toward unhealthy snack foods and drinks post-exercise. Understanding the modifiable factors – such as exercise motivation – that predict post-exercise dietary beliefs is important for supporting individuals’ weight loss and health goals.     

Using motivation regulations in a person-centered approach to examine the link between social physique anxiety in physical education and physical activity-related outcomes in adolescents

ObjectivesThis study explored how social physique anxiety (SPA) combined with different patterns of motivation regulations might facilitate versus deter effort and enjoyment in physical education (PE) and leisure-time physical activity.DesignCross-sectional survey.MethodsHigh school students (N = 298; M_age = 15.72, SD_age = 1.24 years) completed an in-class survey including SPA in PE, motivation regulations for PE, enjoyment and effort in PE and leisure-time physical activity.ResultsFour profiles of students were identified in cluster analysis based on autonomous motivation, introjected regulation, external regulation and SPA. Profile one (“high diverse motivation”; n = 84) reflected relatively high motivation across all regulations and average SPA. Profile two (“moderate autonomous motivation”; n = 92) included those with average scores on autonomous motivation and relatively low scores on introjected and external regulation and SPA. Profile three (“moderate diverse motivation and anxious”; n = 59) had relatively high SPA combined with average motivation regulations. Profile four (“externally controlled and anxious”; n = 63) also had relatively high SPA but relatively low autonomous motivation and introjected regulation and relatively high external regulation. MANOVA results showed that “externally controlled and anxious” students reported the lowest physical activity behavior and enjoyment in PE. Conversely, the “moderate diverse motivation and anxious” students have physical activity experiences that do not differ from the two profiles that exhibited lower SPA.ConclusionsHigher feelings of SPA in PE appear linked with lower levels of enjoyment and effort in PE and leisure-time physical activity outside of school only when coupled with higher external regulation. This finding helps explain inconsistent associations between SPA and physical activity outcomes.     

Physique Attitudes and Self-Presentational Concerns: Exploratory Interviews with Female Group Aerobic Exercisers and Instructors

The purpose of this study was to explore physique attitudes and self-presentational concerns among women who regularly participate in or instruct group aerobic classes. We were interested in conceptualizations of the ideal body, self-presentational concerns, and the influence of instructors in the group aerobics context. Five instructors and 6 exercisers participated in semi-structured interviews. Two higher order themes were identified from the interview data: (a) perceived body ideals and (b) body image experiences in the group aerobics context. Participants described the ideal body as lean and toned and attainable, but cautioned that being too muscular was unattractive and should be avoided. Exercisers experienced heightened self-presentation during aerobics more than the instructors did. Both exercisers and instructors thought that instructors should serve as body role models.     

Colon cancer information as a source of exercise motivation for relatives of patients with colon cancer

Using a Protection Motivation Theory (PMT) framework, this study examined whether factual colon cancer information is a meaningful source of exercise motivation for relatives of patients with colon cancer. One hundred sixty-six inactive relatives were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions: PMT group (intervention); and non-PMT group (attention control). At baseline (T1) participants completed demographic information, a questionnaire designed to assess their beliefs toward exercise and colon cancer as well as their exercise intentions. At T2 (one week following T1) participants watched one of two DVD videos that were created for the study. The intervention DVD contained exercise and colon cancer information that was yoked within the four major components of PMT: perceived vulnerability (PV); perceived severity (PS); response efficacy (RE); and self-efficacy (SE), while the attention control DVD contained general diet and cancer information. Immediately following watching the DVD, participants completed the same measures as in T1. Participants assigned to the PMT intervention group showed significant improvement in PV, RE, SE and exercise intentions, whereas participants assigned to the attention control group showed significant improvement only in RE. RE, SE, and PS made significant and unique contributions to prediction of exercise intention. Overall, the results of the present study demonstrate that a single exposure media intervention grounded in a PMT framework can change individuals' exercise and colon cancer beliefs, as well as change their exercise intentions. Implications of these findings and direction for future research are discussed.     

The effect of mirrored environments on self-presentational efficacy and social anxiety in women in a step aerobics class

ObjectiveThe present study examined the influence of mirrors on self-presentational efficacy (SPE) and state social anxiety (SSA) in a group exercise class in female undergraduate students.MethodFifty-one female university students completed measures of SPE and SSA prior to and following a step aerobics class. Twenty-nine participants completed the class in front of a mirror, while 22 participants completed the class without a mirror.ResultsA repeated measures MANOVA indicated no differences in SPE or SSA based on the presence or absence of mirrors. Regardless of the presence or absence of a mirror, SPE increased and SSA decreased following exercise.ConclusionsThe results suggest that, for this population, completing an exercise session may be more important than the presence or absence of mirrors in influencing self-presentational concerns.     

Effects of Attire, Alcohol, and Gender on Perceptions of Date Rape

This investigation explored three categories of college students’ perceptions of sexual assault: perceptions of similarity to vignette characters, perceptions of vignette characters’ sexual intent, and victim-blaming behaviors, using a convenience sample of 652 U.S. undergraduates and an on-line factorial survey containing a two-part heterosexual date rape vignette. This investigation predicted that vignette character attire, character alcohol use, and participant gender would each significantly influence perceptions in all three categories. Strong associations appeared between all three experimental variables and perceptions, with characters that wore suggestive attire or became intoxicated perceived as less similar and having greater sexual intent than characters that wore neutral attire or abstained. Few differences in actual victim-blaming appeared, likely because of the elimination of hindsight bias.     

Acute effects of exercise on women with pre-existing body image concerns: A test of potential mediators

The primary purpose of this study was to propose and test a mediation model of changes in physical self-efficacy, physical self-perceptions, and affect as mediators by which a single bout of exercise improves state body image. A secondary purpose was to identify how long improvements in state body image are sustained post-exercise. Sixty university-aged women (19.57 ± 1.37 y) with pre-existing body image concerns, and who exercised regularly, were randomized to perform 30 min of moderate-to-vigorous intensity exercise or quiet reading. State body image, physical self-efficacy, physical self-perceptions and affect were assessed. Mediational analyses revealed self-perceptions of body fatness (95% CI [0.03, 0.44], κ² = 0.13, ab_ps = 0.20) and strength (95% CI [0.15, 0.60], κ² = 0.23, ab_ps = 0.33) mediated improvements in state body image which were sustained at least 20 min post-exercise. These results contribute to the development of a model explaining the effects of exercise on body image and practical recommendations for the use of exercise to improve body image.     

Self-Presentation and Exercise

Preliminary research indicates that self-presentation may be an important antecedent and consequence of physical activity because it may affect people's exercise cognitions, attitudes, and behaviors. The specific purposes of this article were to review the literature on self-presentational processes with regard to (a) exercise behavior, (b) motivation to engage in physical activity, (c) the characteristics of the exercise environment, (d) subjective responses to acute exercise, and (e) the effects of exercise interventions on self-presentational concerns. Implications of a self-presentational perspective for examining exercise adherence and developing physical activity interventions are discussed.     

Moderators of the association between exercise identity and obligatory exercise among participants of an athletic event

Previous research has connected exercise identity with obligatory exercise, yet to date no empirical studies have identified moderator variables of this association. The current study included participants of an athletic event (full marathon, n = 582; half marathon, n = 1,106; shorter distance, n = 733) who completed questionnaires about exercise behaviors, obligatory exercise, and internalization of both the thin-ideal and athletic-ideal body shapes. General linear model analyses were conducted to examine the exercise identity–obligatory exercise relationship; moderator variables included gender, internalization of the thin-ideal body shape, and internalization of the athletic-ideal body shape. After controlling for the effects of body mass index, age, and distance group, the three-way interaction of exercise identity, gender, and internalization of the athletic-ideal body shape predicted obligatory exercise. Findings suggest that women who report high identification with exercise and high value on having an athletic physique may be vulnerable to obligatory exercise.     

Affective responses to exercise in overweight women: Initial insight and possible influence on energy intake

It is unclear how exercise influences affect in overweight and obese individuals.ObjectivesTo examine the effect of a single exercise session on positive and negative affect and examine whether pre- to post-exercise changes in affect influence subsequent energy intake (EI).DesignA crossover study in which 19 sedentary, overweight/obese women walked for ～40 min at a moderate-intensity on one day and rested for a similar duration on a separate day.MethodsPositive (PA) and negative affect (NA) were assessed pre-testing, post-testing, 60, and 120 min post-testing using the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule. Energy intake was determined by measuring food intake before and after a buffet meal 1–2 h post-exercise/rest.ResultsFor PA, the time × condition interaction was significant (p < 0.05). There was a trend for those subjects with improved PA from pre to post-exercise (58%) to consume fewer calories post-exercise (524 ± 260.9 kcal) compared to post-rest (566.1 ± 303.0 kcal), while those who had a worsening or no change in PA (42%) had a higher EI following exercise (588.0 ± 233.7 kcal) compared to rest (524.6 ± 281.7 kcal; p = 0.08). NA was not significantly altered by exercise.ConclusionsSome overweight/obese individuals appear to experience an increase in positive affect with exercise; however, there is a high degree of individual variability in responses that warrants further examination. This study also provides initial evidence that a worsening in affect following exercise may unfavorably impact eating behaviors. These preliminary findings have the potential to enhance our understanding of factors mediating the relationship between exercise and EI.     

Mental imagery increases self-determined motivation to exercise with university enrolled women: A randomized controlled trial using a peer-based intervention

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to examine the effects of a peer-based mental imagery intervention on the self-determined motivation and cardio-respiratory fitness of university enrolled women.DesignRandomized controlled trial.Method43 University enrolled women were randomized to peer-mentored or peer-mentored plus mental imagery conditions while 32 completed three meetings with peer-mentors and post-testing (M^age = 19.91; SD = 1.70).ResultsSignificant improvements in cardio-respiratory endurance, ratings of perceived endurance, and self-determined motivation to exercise were observed across both study conditions. Participants assigned to the peer mentored plus mental imagery condition reported significantly greater increases in self-determined motivation to exercise at post-test compared to those in the peer-mentored condition.ConclusionsPeer-based interventions are a viable way to improve fitness and health outcomes while mental imagery appears to be associated with increases in autonomous forms of exercise motivation.     

Trait perfectionism, self-determination, and self-presentation processes in relation to exercise behavior

Objectives

Motivational and self-presentational processes pervade all aspects of our lives including exercise behaviors. Furthermore, trait perfectionism has been shown to heighten self-presentational tendencies and energize achievement striving ( [Flett and Hewitt, 2002] and [Hewitt et?al., 2003]). How maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism traits relate to these cognitive and behavioral processes specific to the exercise context remains to be determined. This study employed structural equation modeling to examine the associations between maladaptive and adaptive perfectionism, self-determination of exercise behavior, self-presentation in exercise, and exercise behavior.

Method

Two hundred and fifty-four undergraduate students completed items assessing frequency, intensity, and duration of aerobic exercise behavior, along with measures of Multidimensional Perfectionism (Cox, Enns, & Clara, 2002), Self-Presentation in Exercise ( [Conroy et?al., 2000] and [Gammage et?al., 2004]), and self-determination of exercise behavior utilizing the Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-2; Markland & Tobin, 2004).

Results

Results supported a structural model in which the associations between perfectionism dimensions and aerobic exercise behavior were mediated by opposing relationships with relative autonomy (RAI; Markland & Tobin, 2004) and self-presentation processes. Distinctively, maladaptive perfectionism demonstrated an inverse direct effect on the RAI and positive direct effects on self-presentation processes. In contrast, adaptive perfectionism exerted a positive direct effect on the RAI and inverse direct effects on self-presentation processes.

Conclusions

These findings highlight the importance of both maladaptive and adaptive dimensions of perfectionism in the study of exercise outcomes and within the broader social context linking perfectionism and motivation.