Child sex moderates the association between negative parenting and childhood conduct problems

Although multiple dimensions of negative parenting behavior are associated with childhood conduct problems (CP), there is relatively little research on whether the association is equally robust in boys and girls. To improve the specificity of current models of negative parenting and offspring CP, we explored the potential moderating role of child sex in a sample of 179 5- to 10-year-old ethnically diverse boys and girls with and without attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) who were assessed using multiple methods (i.e., rating scales, semistructured interviews) and informants (i.e., parents, teachers). Controlling for children's age, race-ethnicity, and ADHD diagnostic status (i.e., ADHD vs. non-ADHD), inconsistent discipline was positively associated with offspring aggression and rule-breaking behavior, whereas harsh punishment was positively associated with aggression, rule-breaking behavior, and oppositional defiant disorder symptoms. Furthermore, child sex significantly moderated the association of inconsistent discipline and aggression and rule-breaking behavior, such that inconsistent discipline was positively associated with CP for boys, but not for girls. Given the centrality of negative parenting to theories of and efficacious interventions for aggression and CP, we discuss these findings within a developmental psychopathology framework and consider their implications for intervention.     

A Multivariate Analysis of the Revised Conners' Teacher Rating Scale with Low-Income, Urban Preschool Children

The present investigation addressed the utility of the revised Conners' Teachers Rating Scale (CTRS-28) with low-income urban preschool children. CTRS-28 ratings for a large sample of preschool children from an urban Head Start program were analyzed using exploratory factor analysis. Analyses yielded a 3-factor structure: Conduct problems, Hyperactivity, and Passivity. Further analyses cross-validated this structure for males and females and supported its integrity. Multimethod, multisource validity analyses substantiated the CTRS-28 dimensions. The Play Disruption factor of the parent and teacher Penn Interactive Peer Play Scales (PIPPS) provided convergent validity for the Conduct and Hyperactivity factors of the CTRS-28, whereas the Play Interaction factor revealed divergent validity. The Play Disconnection factor of the PIPPS validated the CTRS-28 Passivity factor. The Q-Sort Emotional Regulation scale provided divergent validity for the Conduct and Hyperactivity factors and likewise the Q-Sort Autonomy scale provided divergent validity for the Passivity factor. Age and sex differences were assessed across the 3 factors of the derived preschool structure. A main effect was found for sex and age indicating that boys displayed higher levels of Hyperactivity and Passivity problems than girls did. Similarly, 4-year-old children demonstrated higher levels of Passivity problems than did 5-year-old children.     

A comparison of 8- and 11-year-old girls' and boys' participation in specific types of rough-and-tumble play and aggressive fighting: Implications for functional hypotheses

Study 1 compared the extent to which 8- and 11-year-old girls and boys (N = 86) participated in specific types of rough-and-tumble play. It used an observational methodology. The data were used to test two prominent hypotheses about the evolutionary function of this general category of play behaviour that have been applied to children, especially boys, of this age. One is that rough-and-tumble play provides practice for the development of real fighting skills and the other that it serves as a safe way to establish/display social dominance. Both hypotheses predict that boys will engage in more rough-and-tumble play than girls, especially those types that are used in fighting/dominance contests. Boys were found to engage in significantly more chase initiation activities, more bouts of brief rough-and-tumble play, more bouts of restraining and more bouts of boxing/hitting than girls. These data provide some support for the two hypotheses, although significant sex differences were not found for all types of rough-and-tumble play observed. No significant age differences were obtained, suggesting that the two hypotheses may be applicable throughout the 8- to 11-year-old period and not just at the end of it as previous research had suggested. Study 2 presented observational data concerning the motor patterns used in aggressive fighting. In all but one case, there were no significant differences in the extent to which 8/9- and 10/11-year-old girls and boys employed wrestling, hitting and restraining, supporting the view that the practice fighting hypothesis is relevant throughout the 8-11-year-old period. It was argued that age and sex differences provide a useful means of scrutinising functional hypotheses, and that splitting behavioural categories that contain disparate action patterns facilitates more refined tests of those hypotheses. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

A factor analytic study of the COPE Questionnaire by sex of respondents

This work examined the effect of sex on factor structure of a Chinese version of the 1989 COPE questionnaire with a sample of 617 Hong Kong adolescents (Mdn age = 14 yr.). Some scales had low internal consistency reliability for both sexes. Not all 15 scales could be identified as unique factors through exploratory factor analysis separately for both sexes (275 boys, 338 girls, 4 unknown). In a second-order factor analysis, both sexes' data had factors related to problem-focused coping and avoidance/escaping coping, and these two factors were only weakly correlated. An emotion-focused factor was observed in girls' data, but not boys' data.     

Italian version of the task and ego orientation in sport questionnaire

The 1992 Task and Ego Orientation in Sport Questionnaire developed by Duda and Nicholls was translated into Italian and administered to 802 young athletes, 248 girls and 554 boys aged 8 to 14 years, drawn from a range of individual and team sports, to examine its factor structure. Data sets of a calibration sample (boys 12-14 years) and of four cross-validation samples (boys 8-11 years, girls 8-11 years, boys 12-14 years, and girls 12-14 years) were subjected to confirmatory factor analysis specifying, as in the original questionnaire, an Ego Orientation scale (6 items) and a Task Orientation scale (7 items). Results across sex and age yielded chi2/df ratios ranging from 1.95 to 3.57, GFI indices above .90, AGFI indices ranging from .90 to .92, and RMSEA values not above .10. Findings provided acceptable support for the two-dimension structure of the test. In the whole sample, the Ego factor accounted for the 27.2% of variance and the Task factor accounted for the 33.5% of variance. Acceptable internal consistency of the two scales was also shown, with Cronbach alpha values ranging from .73 to .85.     

Age and Sex Differences in the Cooperative and Noncooperative Behavior of Pairs of American Children

Game playing behavior of same and mixed sex pairs of 5-, 8-, and 11-year-old American children was compared, using a game in which cooperative behavior maximized reward. Pairs of 8- and 11-year-old children were relatively more cooperative and attained significantly more Joint Reward Goals than 5-year-old pairs. Older pairs were not maximally cooperative, however, in terms of all the dependent measures; in adjusting for initial differences on practice trials, 5-year-olds and 8-year-olds took less time than the 11-year-olds, and 11-year-old pairs of boys took significantly more time than all other pairs. In addition, cooperative behavior increased across trials, especially for the 11-year-old children.     

Age and sex differences in the cooperative and noncooperative behavior of pairs of American children

Game playing behavior of same and mixed sex pairs of 5-, 8-, and 11-year-old American children was compared, using a game in which cooperative behavior maximized reward. Pairs of 8- and 11-year-old children were relatively more cooperative and attained significantly more Joint Reward Goals than 5-year-old pairs. Older pairs were not maximally cooperative, however, in terms of all the dependent measures; in adjusting for initial differences on practice trials, 5-year-olds and 8-year-olds took less time than the 11-year-olds, and 11-year-old pairs of boys took significantly more time than all other pairs. In addition, cooperative behavior increased across trials, especially for the 11-year-old children.     

Adolescent temperament,perceived social support,and depressive tendencies as predictors of depressive tendencies in young adulthood

A 5 year longitudinal study investigated the interrelations of temperament dimensions (negative emotionality, activity, and sociability), perceived social support (friend, significant other, and family support), and depressive tendencies. Temperament (EASTS; Buss, 1991), perceived social support (PSS‐R; Blumenthal, Burg, Barefoot, Williams, Haney and Zimet, 1987) and depressive tendencies (a modified version of the BDI) were measured by self‐reports in a randomly selected, community‐based sample of 302 adolescents at age 15, and depressive tendencies were measured again five years later at age 20. The authors hypothesized a model comprising direct as well as mediated effects between the adolescent predictor variables and depressive tendencies in young adulthood. The structural modelling analyses supported these hypotheses in part, and also indicated some qualitative sex differences. For both girls and boys, a significant direct as well as mediating role was indicated for the current level of depressive tendencies: depressive tendencies at age 15 predicted depressive tendencies at age 20, also mediating the effects of negative emotionality at age 15, and additionally mediating the effects of a low level of activity in girls and a low level of family support in boys. Furthermore, even when the prior level of depressive tendencies was controlled, direct effects were indicated in boys for a low level of sociability, and in girls for significant other support, which also mediated the effects of a low level of sociability. These results highlight the importance of the sex‐differentiated interplay of both intrapersonal and psychosocial factors in relation to depressive tendencies both during adolescence and from adolescence to young adulthood. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression among 5-11-year-old Canadian boys and girls

It has been proven extremely difficult in the past to estimate the prevalence of physical aggression in children for two main reasons: (a) a heterogeneous sampling of behaviors (i.e., mix between physically aggressive and non-physically aggressive antisocial behaviors), and (b) a lack of a "gold standard" to identify children who exhibit physically aggressive behaviors on a frequent basis. The goal of this study was to test for age differences in the prevalence of physical aggression in the Canadian population of school-aged boys and girls, using cross-sectional data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth (NLSCY). The first wave of the NLSCY included a representative sample of 12,292 Canadian children aged 5-11 years. We used latent class analysis to identify children whose propensity to exhibit physically aggressive behaviors was much higher than that of other children of the same age and sex in the population. The prevalence of physical aggression was estimated at 3.7% in 5-11-year-old boys and ranged from .5% to 2.3% in 11 and 5-year-old girls, respectively. Hence, the results show a decreasing trend in the prevalence of physical aggression with age for girls, but not for boys. These findings suggest the importance of considering the developmental pathways of physical aggression for boys and girls separately.     

The role of attributional bias and visual stress on the improvement of reading speed using colored filters

This study tested the predictions derived from two explanatory theoretical models of the effects of colored filters on reading speed: the theory of attributional bias and the theory of visual stress associated with reading. The experimental group consisted of 27 secondary school students (14 boys, 13 girls) diagnosed with the Meares-Irlen syndrome; the control group had 27 students paired in age and sex with the experimental group. The mean age of the sample was 12 years, 10 months (SD = 8.9 mo.). The effects of colored filters on reading speed and accuracy were tested using a word reading test and a visual stress induction text. The presentation method tapped individuals' visual sensitivity and response criteria. The results support some predictions of the theory of attributional bias, but more research is needed to assess each theory of reading speed.     

学习不良儿童社会性发展特点的研究

对211名10—15岁学习不良儿童社会性发展特点的研究表明,学习不良儿童在本研究确定的社会交往、自我概念和行为问题诸维度上具有独特的年龄和性别特点。学习不良女孩的社会性发展水平略高于学习不良男孩;随年龄递增．学习不良儿童的社会性发展水平不断得到提高,但其在不同年龄阶段的特点则有所不同。同时．学习不良儿童社会性发展诸方面存在着交互作用。     

Testing Structural Models of DSM-IV Symptoms of Common Forms of Child and Adolescent Psychopathology

Confirmatory factor analyses were conducted of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) symptoms of common mental disorders derived from structured interviews of a representative sample of 4,049 twin children and adolescents and their adult caretakers. A dimensional model based on the assignment of symptoms to syndromes in DSM-IV fit better than alternative models, but some dimensions were highly correlated. Modest sex and age differences in factor loadings and correlations were found that suggest that the dimensions of psychopathology are stable across sex and age, but slightly more differentiated at older ages and in males. The dimensions of symptoms were found to be hierarchically organized within higher-order “externalizing” and “internalizing” dimensions, which accounted for much of their variance. Major depression and generalized anxiety disorder were substantially correlated with both the “externalizing” dimension and the “internalizing” dimension, however, suggesting the need to reconceptualize the nature of these higher-order dimensions.     

Applicability of olweu' aggression inventory in a sample of chinese primary school children

A sample of Chinese children in Grade 4 (155 boys and 135 girls with an average age of 10.3 years) completed Olweu' Aggression Inventory, an instrument developed for the assessment of aggressive and aggression controlling behavior tendencies in a Western culture. Results indicated that the questionnaire gave quite meaningful information when used with the Chinese children. Two interpretable factors, general aggression and aggression control, were derived; the pattern of factor loadings was essentially the same for boys and girls. The internal consistency reliabilities of the two factor scales were in the 0.80s and 0.70s, respectively. Overall, the findings indicated that there were distinct measurable individual differences among Chinese children in the domain of aggression—in spite of strong societal pressures against aggressive behavior and towards aggression control. However, some results suggested that aggression was a somewhat more global, or less differentiated, phenomenon for the Chinese as compared with the Swedish children. The two main factor scales were related meaningfully to other self report dimensions such as positive attitude to school and negative relations with parents. In all probability, the pattern of findings gave a valid picture of the behavior and attitudes of the Chinese children: By and large they were nonaggressive, well-behaved, ambitious, friendly, prosocial, and exerted strong control over aggressive feelings and behavior tendencies. In possible conflicts with adults, they were likely to take a humble and submissive attitude. These findings agree well with the impressions of Western observers and with what can be expected on the basis of the typical socialization patterns found in the People's Republic of China. Furthermore, quite marked sex differences in aggression were obtained and a partial correlation analysis showed that the higher aggression level of the boys could only to a very limited degree be explained by their lower level of aggression control or inhibitions. Generally, the sex differences in aggression were interpreted to reflect genetic variations in basic predispositions in boys and girls that had been subtly enlarged by more or less clear, sex-linked differences in environmental conditions.     

Fantasy Play in 5- and 6-Year-Old Children

We studied the verbal pretend play of 5- and 6-year-old boys and girls to delineate age and sex differences during the later preoperational period. Sixteen children with average language ability were paired by age and sex and were videotaped for three 15-min intervals. Verbal interactions were transcribed, and the pretend play was classified as object fantasy, imaginative action plans/themes, or fantasy roles. Language ilsed for pretend play increased in proportion to all utterances with age. Older children referred to more invented objects than younger ones but primarily in the service of realistic action formats. Girls' conversations were scored as having significantly more verbal pretending than boys' and a higher proportion of it referred to play roles. There were both age and sex differences in the types of themes, toys used, and roles enacted, including more sex-typed behavior in older children. The continued increase in the proportion of pretend play to all verbal interaction with age and the characteristics of play behavior is consistent with developmental theory.     

应对量表(COPE)测评维度结构研究

该文旨在对应对量表(COPE)的测评维度结构进行进一步的鉴别分析和验证研究。研究一对736名大学生的应对量表中文修订本(C-COPE)测评数据进行探索性二阶因素分析;研究二根据已有研究关于应对量表测评维度组构模式的不同结论,以及研究一的结果,提出十个假设模型,采用验证性因素分析测试这些模型与另一大学生样本(N：465)测评数据的拟合度。研究结果支持C-COPE八因子斜交模型。该量表如何进一步修订也在文中予以讨论。     

Evidence for a Higher-Order ESEM Structure of ADHD in a Sample of Chinese Children

Exploratory structural equation modeling (ESEM) solutions have been proposed to represent the factor structures of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in recent literature, yet no studies have assessed those structures in Chinese children. The primary aim of this study was to comprehensively examine the factor structures of the Chinese version of the ADHD Rating Scale-IV (ADHD RS-IV): Home Version. Data on 458 Chinese children aged 3–8 years (boys: 246; 54%) were used to test and compare eleven factor models: confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) models (one-factor, two-factor and three-factor), second-order CFA model, bifactor CFA models (two and three specific factors), ESEM models (two-factor and three-factor), second-order ESEM model, and bifactor ESEM models (two and three specific factors). The results showed that, overall, ESEM models displayed better fit than CFA models. Specifically, the second-order ESEM model with three first-order factors best represented of the ADHD factor structure in our sample. In addition, measurement invariance testing results showed that scalar invariance was established across gender, age and informant groups. Implications for future research are discussed.

     

Child Effortful Control as a Mediator of Parenting Practices on Externalizing Behavior: Evidence for a Sex-Differentiated Pathway across the Transition from Preschool to School

An explanatory model for children’s development of disruptive behavior across the transition from preschool to school was tested. It was hypothesized that child effortful control would mediate the effects of parenting on children’s externalizing behavior and that child sex would moderate these relations. Participants were 241 children (123 boys) and their parents and teachers. Three dimensions of parenting, warm responsiveness, induction, and corporal punishment, were assessed via maternal report when children were 3 years old. Child effortful control at age 3 was measured using laboratory tasks and a mother-report questionnaire. Mothers and teachers contributed ratings of child externalizing behavior at age 6. Results showed that the hypothesized model fit the data well and that the pattern of associations between constructs differed for boys and girls. For boys, parental warm responsiveness and corporal punishment had significant indirect effects on children’s externalizing behavior three years later, mediated by child effortful control. Such relations were not observed for girls. These findings support a sex-differentiated pathway to externalizing behavior across the transition from preschool to school.     

The incidence,prevalence, and severity of behavior disorders among preschool-aged children in day care

This study examined the incidence, prevalence, and severity of 14 empirically derived externalizing (unsocialized aggressive) and internalizing (socially withdrawn) behaviors among 2- through 5-year-olds attending day care. Teacher ratings were obtained for 558 children in the incidence sample and 709 children in the expanded prevalence sample. Within each age, data were cross-tabulated by sex of child and severity of behavior, and chi-square analyses were computed. Results indicated that a substantial proportion of children in the normal preschool population exhibit relatively high severities of selected externalizing and internalizing behaviors; this proportion varied with the age of the child and the behavior rated. Preschool-aged boys were consistently rated as demonstrating greater frequencies of externalizing behaviors than preschool-aged girls. The diagnostic and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.     

Fantasy play in 5- and 6-year-old children

We studied the verbal pretend play of 5- and 6-year-old boys and girls to delineate age and sex differences during the later preoperational period. Sixteen children with average language ability were paired by age and sex and were videotaped for three 15-min intervals. Verbal interactions were transcribed, and the pretend play was classified as object fantasy, imaginative action plans/themes, or fantasy roles. Language used for pretend play increased in proportion to all utterances with age. Older children referred to more invented objects than younger ones but primarily in the service of realistic action formats. Girls' conversations were scored as having significantly more verbal pretending than boys' and a higher proportion of it referred to play roles. There were both age and sex differences in the types of themes, toys used, and roles enacted, including more sex-typed behavior in older children. The continued increase in the proportion of pretend play to all verbal interaction with age and the characteristics of play behavior is consistent with developmental theory.