High-risk sexual behavior and knowledge of HIV antibody status in the San Francisco City Clinic Cohort

To evaluate the effectiveness of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) testing and counseling among homosexual and bisexual men participating in the San Francisco City Clinic Cohort, compared behavioral data from 181 men who learned their HIV antibody status between 1985 and 1987 with data from 128 men who were tested but declined to receive their results. Overall, significant declines in risk indices for unprotected receptive and insertive anal intercourse occurred between 1983-1984 and 1986-1987, but these declines were independent of both knowledge of HIV status and actual serostatus. Those who chose to learn their HIV status were also no more likely to report depression or to learn their HIV status were also no more likely to report depression or anxiety subsequent to testing. Regression analyses showed no relationship between length of time since learning one's HIV status, mental health symptoms, and the persistence of high-risk behavior in 1986-1987. Although these results do not negate the value of HIV testing and counseling, they suggest that other motivating factors such as frequent access to risk-reduction information may provide sufficient impetus for behavioral change.     

Optimism, coping, psychological distress, and high-risk sexual behavior among men at risk for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS).

In a cohort of gay men responding to the threat of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), dispositional optimism was associated with less distress, less avoidant coping, positive attitudes as a coping strategy, and fewer AIDS-related concerns. Men who knew they were seropositive for human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) were significantly more optimistic about not developing AIDS than men who knew they were seronegative for HIV. This AIDS-specific optimism was related to higher perceived control over AIDS and to active coping among seropositive men only and to health behaviors in both serostatus groups. There was no relation of optimism to risk-related sexual behavior. It is concluded that optimism is psychologically adaptive without necessarily compromising health behavior. It is also concluded that it is useful to distinguish between event-based optimistic expectations and dispositional optimism.     

"HIV testing is so gay": the role of masculine gender role conformity in HIV testing among men who have sex with men

Men who have sex with men (MSM) account for more than half of all new cases of HIV infection in the United States. Yet, many MSM are unaware of their HIV serostatus. Consistent with research indicating that gender role conformity impacts health behaviors, this study examined how masculine norms may influence HIV testing among MSM in the United States. Data from 170 self-identified MSM (age M = 46.45, SD = 12.18) of self-reported negative or unknown HIV serostatus living in the United States were used in this study. About half (52%) of participants reported that they had been tested for HIV within the past 12 months; 48% reported that they had not. Logistic regression was used to examine the association between domains of masculine gender role conformity and HIV testing within the past 12 months, controlling for number of sexual partners in the last 12 months. The masculine norm of heterosexual self-presentation (i.e., desire to be perceived by others as heterosexual) was negatively associated with HIV testing (B = -0.74, SE B = 0.36, O.R. = 0.48, 95% CI [0.24, 0.96]), after controlling for the effect of number of sexual partners. Psychologists and other health professionals may remain mindful of potential implications of HIV testing among MSM, including potential for MSM to view HIV testing as an "outing" procedure.     

Physically distributed learning: adapting and reinterpreting physical environments in the development of fraction concepts

Five studies examined how interacting with the physical environment can support the development of fraction concepts. Nine- and 10-year-old children worked on fraction problems they could not complete mentally. Experiments 1 and 2 showed that manipulating physical pieces facilitated children's ability to develop an interpretation of fractions. Experiment 3 demonstrated that when children understood a content area well, they used their interpretations to repurpose many environments to support problem solving, whereas when they needed to learn, they were prone to the structure of the environment. Experiments 4 and 5 examined transfer after children had learned by manipulating physical pieces. Children who learned by adapting relatively unstructured environments transferred to new materials better than children who learned with "well-structured" environments that did not require equivalent adaptation. Together, the findings reveal that during physically distributed learning, the opportunity to adapt an environment permits the development of new interpretations that can advance learning.     

The Nature and Correlates of Psychological Adjustment in Gay Men with AIDS-Related Conditions1

This study assessed differences in the psychological adjustment of gay men who tested positive for the antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Twenty-one were symptomatic for AIDS, and 27 were asymptomatic. A group of 15 gay men who tested negative for the HIV was included as a comparison group. Men in the three groups were equivalent on demographic variables. Symptomatic men reported more health problems than either asymptomatic or seronegative men. Relative to men who were symptomatic, those who were asymptomatic reported more death anxiety, less optimism, and greater severity of psychological distress, and reported more frequent use of avoidance and distancing as coping strategies. The poor psychological functioning of asymptomatic subjects was attributed to the uncertainty regarding their future health status. Generally, positive psychological well-being of symptomatic and asymptomatic men was related to the infrequent use of avoidance coping strategies and high satisfaction with perceived social support.     

Self-efficacy and disclosure of HIV-positive serostatus to sex partners.

HIV-positive persons face significant challenges to disclosing their HIV serostatus, and failure to disclose can place their sex partners at risk. The current study examined HIV serostatus disclosure in 266 sexually active HIV-positive persons recruited from the community. Results showed that 41% had not disclosed their HIV serostatus to sex partners. Men who had not disclosed to partners indicated lower rates of condom use during anal intercourse and scored significantly lower on a measure of self-efficacy for condom use compared to individuals who had disclosed. Emotional distress was also greatest among persons who had not recently disclosed. Having not disclosed to sex partners was closely associated with lower self-efficacy for disclosing, with women who had not disclosed reporting the lowest disclosure self-efficacy. As people living with HIV-AIDS are encouraged to disclose their HIV status, interventions are needed to facilitate disclosure decision making.     

Turtles (Pseudemys nelsoni) learn about visual cues indicating food from experienced turtles

We investigated whether turtles (Pseudemys nelsoni) could learn about a visual object cue to obtain food reinforcement by observing conspecifics that had learned the task. This study was designed with a three part task which, if completed by the observer turtles, would provide evidence of their abilities to learn from other turtles using stimulus enhancement, goal emulation, or copying. All four P. nelsoni turtles tested after observation of a trained demonstrator, whom they had direct access to during the demonstrator training trials, learned not only to follow another turtle to the stimulus indicating food, but also, in the absence of the demonstrator, to approach the correct stimulus regardless of spatial position. Therefore, all four P. nelsoni turtles tested showed evidence of stimulus enhancement learning. This is the first experimental study of social learning in any aquatic reptile demonstrating that they have the ability to learn from conspecifics.     

Self-disclosure of HIV infection: preliminary results from a sample of Hispanic men.

We examined self-disclosure of HIV infection among 101 seropositive Hispanic men residing in Los Angeles. Results indicated that disclosure was highly selective and presumably influenced by the social, psychological, and material consequences of informing others about one's medical condition. Subjects tended to inform significant others such as parents, friends, and lovers than less significant others such as employers, landlords, and religious leaders. There was a relatively high rate of disclosure (75%) to doctors/dentists who were not treating subjects for HIV infection. Gay and bisexual subjects (89% of the sample) were more inclined to disclose their HIV serostatus to homosexual or bisexual others than to heterosexuals and to inform those who were aware of their sexual orientation. Disclosure increased with severity of disease independently of length of time since testing seropositive. Self-rated negative changes in appearance correlated with disclosure to less significant others. The role of cultural attitudes and values in self-disclosure of HIV infection is discussed.     

Regrets and Advice from Mothers who have Disclosed their HIV + Serostatus to their Young Children

Qualitative interviews were conducted with mothers (N = 47) who had disclosed their HIV status to their child. Mothers described their preparation and the process of the disclosure event, and discussed any regrets they had about disclosing or the process of disclosing. They were also asked what advice they had for other HIV-positive mothers who were trying to determine whether to disclose their serostatus to their young children. Overall, the majority of the mothers (68%) did not regret disclosing their HIV status. Regrets fell into five categories: preparation, timing, context, content, and outcomes of the disclosure event. Based on these findings, mothers who have not disclosed their serostatus to their children need assistance with behavioral practice and support in order to prepare for the process. Furthermore, follow-up support for the children may be beneficial.     

Differing sexual practices of men and women screened for HIV (AIDS) antibody

This study describes the results of a survey of all persons screened for antibodies to the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) during a 3-mo. period at a county health department. Complete interviews and serologic analysis for antibodies to HIV using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay were obtained from all 43 persons. HIV antibodies, confirmed by Western blot assay, were present in 7 or 16% of the sample. Self-reported changes in sexual practices among the 27 seronegative homosexual men occurred prior to counseling and screening, but 9 seronegative women reported no change in high-risk behaviors. The number of black men and women screened were disproportionately smaller than their representation in the community. These findings suggest that stronger educational efforts are needed to disseminate information to women and blacks who are at risk for HIV infection.     

Does easily learned mean easily remembered?: it depends on your beliefs about intelligence

Because numerous studies have shown that feelings of encoding fluency are positively correlated with judgments of learning, a single dominant heuristic, easily learned = easily remembered (ELER), has been posited to explain how people interpret encoding fluency when assessing their own memory. However, the inferences people draw from feelings of encoding fluency may vary with their beliefs about why information is easy or effortful to encode. We conducted two experiments in which participants studied word lists and then predicted their future recall of those items. Results revealed that subjects who viewed intelligence as fixed, and who tended to interpret effortful encoding as indicating that they had reached the limits of their ability, used the ELER heuristic to make judgments of learning. However, subjects who viewed intelligence as malleable, and who tended to interpret effortful encoding as indicating greater engagement in learning, did not use the ELER heuristic and at times predicted greater memory for items that they found more effortful to learn.     

CF carrier testing: Experience of relatives

Consensus exists that genetic counseling and CF carrier testing should be offered to individuals with a positive family history of CF. To learn more about their experience with genetic counseling and testing we conducted a series of structured telephone interviews and focus group discussions with individuals and couples who had undergone genetic counseling and carrier testing because of a family history of CF. Traditional genetic counseling appears to have been effective for this population. Subjects generally report having a positive counseling experience and few difficulties upon learning their carrier status. Subjects were quite knowledgeable about CF and their carrier risk and were highly motivated to seek testing. They may not be representative of all individuals with a family history of CF however. For carriers, concerns about whether and when to have children tested, and concerns about insurance implications of carrier status may emerge sometime after the initial counseling. Strategies for addressing these concerns and for providing efficient and effective education and genetic counseling for people with a family history of CF need to be developed.     

Predicting intention to use condoms in homosexual men: an application and extension of the theory of reasoned action

A questionnaire based upon the Theory of Reasoned Action was developed and tested to identify predictors of intention to use condoms. Behavioral intentions, attitudes and subjective normative beliefs, behavioral norms, and age of HIV-positive status were included on the questionnaire. Internal consistency of the four components was high, with Cronbach's alpha coefficients of 0.76-0.87. Qualitative data were collected over 2 months from 194 homosexual men who participated in Sydney's homosexual community. Participants aged 17-64 years of mean age 29.5 attended individual interviews or small focus groups to discuss their views concerning condom use. 15% reported having tested HIV-positive, 59% tested negative, and 26% reported not knowing their HIV serostatus. According to logistic modeling, the significant predictors of intentions to use a condom were attitudes and behavioral norms, while HIV antibody positive status and age directly influence behavioral intentions to use a condom. About 50% of men over age 25 years intended to use a condom, irrespective of HIV status. Overall, 59% of men aged 25 years and younger intended to use a condom; 22% of HIV-positive men and 63% of HIV-negative men.     

Implicit Learning in a Simple Cued Reaction-Time Task

Implicit learning tasks usually involve the learning of complex rules. While this does reduce the likelihood of subjects becoming aware of the relationship to be learned, it also raises the possibility of explaining improved performance in terms of explicit processes. The current experiments are an attempt to develop a task which shows evidence of implicit learning, but which involves the learning of a very simple rule and so avoids these alternative explanations. In two experiments, we exposed subjects to learning trials in which a target letter (or shape) was immediately preceded by a cue letter (or shape) in otherwise random nine-letter (or 15-shape) sequences. In a test phase, subjects responded more quickly to cued than uncued targets if the learning phase had involved reliable cue–target pairings, but not following random control pairings. This was true of subjects who were classified as aware and those classified as unaware of the cue–target relationship.     

Psychological factors in hiv testing among sexually transmitted disease clinic patients: An exploratory study

Abstract

Substantial numbers of persons at risk for HIV infection do not seek HIV testing and factors influencing testing decisions are not well understood. To identify psychological characteristics of persons who remain unwilling to receive HIV testing, we surveyed patients of an inner-city sexually transmitted disease (STD) clinic (n = 181). Participants completed an anonymous survey and were grouped on the basis of HIV testing history and compared on measures of testing perceptions, attitudes, and decision making influences. Results showed that untested participants feared testing and had a sense of not knowing if they needed to be tested. In contrast, participants who were getting tested believed that testing would help them feel better about their health. Results also showed that participants lacked accurate information about some HIV testing procedures. We conclude that identifying concerns which inhibit seeking HIV testing can be useful in developing effective methods of promoting HIV testing.     

The feedback withholding bias: Minority students do not receive critical feedback from evaluators concerned about appearing racist

How can we learn from our mistakes if we're unaware they exist? The present research tested the hypothesis that minority students receive less critical feedback on their written work from evaluators who are primarily externally motivated to inhibit their racial biases. Participants highlighted instances of good/bad writing in essays purportedly written by a White or a minority student. Results of two experiments showed that although participants provided equivalent amounts of positive feedback to both authors, they provided less negative feedback and gave higher grades to minority authors to the extent that they were externally but not internally motivated to respond without prejudice. This finding reveals that stigmatized students sometimes fail to receive the critical feedback necessary to identify areas needing improvement, particularly when evaluators are concerned about appearing prejudiced. The implications for educational equality are discussed.     

Adapting to target error without visual feedback

What information is necessary for the motor system to adapt its behaviour? Visual hand-to-target error provides salient information about reach performance, but can learning proceed without this information? We investigated adaptation to an unperceived target perturbation under visual open-loop conditions. Participants looked and reached, without any vision of their hand, to a target that jumped rightward at saccade onset (Perturbation condition) or remained stationary throughout the trial (Stationary condition). The target jump in the Perturbation condition was tied to the saccade, such that participants were unaware that it had occurred. Each type of exposure was followed by a posttest, in which participants reached to a target that disappeared at saccade onset. In the posttest, participants reached farther following exposure to the perturbation than they did following exposure to the stationary target, indicating that participants had learned from systematic exposure to the jump. These findings imply that online error induces motor learning, even when participants receive no visual information about their performance.     

Learning a Phonological Contrast Modulates the Auditory Grouping of Rhythm

Perceptual grouping is fundamental to many auditory processes. The Iambic–Trochaic Law (ITL) is a default grouping strategy, where rhythmic alternations of duration are perceived iambically (weak‐strong), while alternations of intensity are perceived trochaically (strong‐weak). Some argue that the ITL is experience dependent. For instance, French speakers follow the ITL, but not as consistently as German speakers. We hypothesized that learning about prosodic patterns, like word stress, modulates this rhythmic grouping. We tested this idea by training French adults on a German‐like stress contrast. Individuals who showed better phonological learning had more ITL‐like grouping, particularly over duration cues. In a non‐phonological condition, French adults were trained using identical stimuli, but they learned to attend to acoustic variation that was not linguistic. Here, no learning effects were observed. Results thus suggest that phonological learning can modulate low‐level auditory grouping phenomena, but it is constrained by the ability of individuals to learn from short‐term training.