The moderating and mediating role of group identification in observers' reactions to intragroup disrespect

The current research examines observer reactions to disrespectful treatment of another ingroup member by an ingroup authority. In an empirical study which identifies both the moderating and mediating role of group identification in tandem, specifically with regard to the observed intragroup disrespect, relational motives appeared to underlie subsequent observer evaluations of the group as a whole. Respondents' pre‐transgression identification with the group in which the injustice occurred moderated reactions to intragroup disrespect; only when group members identified strongly with the group did they react to more severe disrespect with worse evaluations. Group identification also mediated the impact of disrespect on subsequent reactions toward the group. Additionally, the relationship between observed disrespect severity and post‐transgression identification with the group was further mediated by perceptions of membership value in the group. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Effects of running and other activities on moods

The purpose of this study was to compare the moods and mood variations of runners to those of aerobic dancers, weight-lifters, and nonexercising controls. The subjects, 70 undergraduates, were participants in a jogging and conditioning, a weight training, an aerobic dance, or an introductory psychology class. A time-series design was used in which all participants completed eight Profile of Mood State questionnaires over a 6-hr. period that centered on the time of the class. Four questionnaires were completed during the second week of classes and the other four about midsemester, approximately 6 wk. later. Runners had a significantly more positive mood profile than nonexercisers and a somewhat more positive one than weight-lifters, but those of runners and aerobic dancers were similar. Changes in moods across time in relation to activity and across semester suggest that exercise, particularly aerobic exercise, helps the regular participant not only to cope with stress but also to have a generally more positive feeling of well-being.     

Effects of positive and negative moods on helping tasks having pleasant or unpleasant consequences

A field study investigated the effects of positive and negative moods on subjects' willingness to perform helping tasks having pleasant or unpleasant consequences. Results indicated that procedures designed to induce either positive or negative moods facilitate helping when the task has pleasant consequences, but tend to inhibit helping when the task is likely to be unpleasant. The findings are consistent with the notion that many everyday acts of kindness (altruism) are interpretable as a form of hedonism. The implications of these outcomes for an activation model of mood-induced altruism are discussed.     

Effects of training intensity on observers' ratings of anxiety, social skills, and alcohol-specific coping skills

Few studies have addressed the amount of training needed to obtain reliable ratings in behavioral observation data. The current study examined the effects of differing intensities of frame-of-reference (FOR) rater training on observers' ratings of anxiety, social skills, and alcohol-specific coping skills in community volunteers with and without social anxiety and alcohol use disorders. Interrater reliability was assessed by comparing three training conditions (no-training, moderate FOR, and intensive FOR) on discrepancies between raters'scores and the strength of association between raters'scoring patterns. The discrepancies between raters' scores were significantly larger in the control condition than in the intensive and moderate training conditions. Generally, small and nonsignificant differences were found between intensive and moderate training's discrepancy scores. Strength of association results showed significantly lower correlations in the control group compared to the intensive group. However, these correlational results showed less consistent differences between the moderate and other training conditions; differences when found were in the expected directions. Study findings suggest that differing training intensities can affect rating scores and that interrater reliability may be meaningfully assessed through multiple methods.     

Influence of contextual information on observers' perceptions of actors' intentions to harm others

Previous examinations of perceptions of aggressive behaviors have used static stimulus presentations (e.g., photographs or slides). This investigation examined the impact of varying amounts of geographical and temporal contextual information on observers' perceptions of actors' intentions to physically and psychologically (intimidate) harm others. Participants (51 elite ice hockey players) were randomly assigned to view one of three video-taped presentations showing eight ice hockey behaviors in either a) a dynamic mode with contextual information, b) a dynamic mode with no context, or c) a static, “freeze-frame” mode. MANOVA results showed that non-aggressive stimuli were perceived as less aggressive, and aggressive stimuli were perceived as more aggressive in dynamic presentations with context than in static presentations. Based on these findings, it is suggested that future research focussing on perceptions of aggressive behavior utilize a dynamic stimulus presentation containing context material. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Effects of preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy on weight loss in a self-control program

The present study was designed to investigate the effects of self-efficacy on weight loss utilizing self-control techniques. Subjects high and low in preexisting self-efficacy were randomly assigned to high or low manipulated self-efficacy groups in a 2 × 2 (preexisting self-efficacy × manipulated self-efficacy) factorial design. Preexisting self-efficacy was assessed using procedures employed byBandura and Adams (1977, Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1, 287–308). Selfefficacy was manipulated by having subjects attribute successful task performance to a previously unrecognized capacity for self-control. Subjects met in groups once a week for a total of 8 weeks and received a comprehensive weight control program within the context of self-control. Results indicated significant manipulated and preexisting × trials interactions with both the high manipulated and preexisting self-efficacy groups losing more weight over the 8 weeks than the low preexisting and manipulated groups. In addition, locus of control was predictive of weight loss, with internals tending to lose more weight than externals. Results are discussed in terms of Bandura's (1977, Psychological Review, 84, 191–215) theory of self-efficacy.     

The intentionality and intelligibility of moods

This article offers an account of moods as distinctive kinds of personal level affective–evaluative states, which are both intentional and rationally intelligible in specific ways. The account contrasts with those who claim moods are non‐intentional, and so also arational. Section 2 provides a conception of intentionality and distinguishes moods, as occurrent experiential states, from other states in the affective domain. Section 3 argues moods target the subject's total environment presented in a specific evaluative light through felt valenced attitudes (the Mood‐Intentionality thesis). Section 4 argues some moods are experienced as rationally intelligible responses, and so epistemically appropriate, to the way “the world” presents itself (the Mood‐Intelligibility thesis). Finally, Section 5 discusses the epistemology of moods.     

The influence of social and symbolic cues on observers' gaze behaviour

Research has shown that social and symbolic cues presented in isolation and at fixation have strong effects on observers, but it is unclear how cues compare when they are presented away from fixation and embedded in natural scenes. We here compare the effects of two types of social cue (gaze and pointing gestures) and one type of symbolic cue (arrow signs) on eye movements of observers under two viewing conditions (free viewing vs. a memory task). The results suggest that social cues are looked at more quickly, for longer and more frequently than the symbolic arrow cues. An analysis of saccades initiated from the cue suggests that the pointing cue leads to stronger cueing than the gaze and the arrow cue. While the task had only a weak influence on gaze orienting to the cues, stronger cue following was found for free viewing compared to the memory task.     

Effects of exercise self-schema on reactions to self-relevant feedback

ObjectivesThe purpose of this study was to test the influence of exercise self-schema on the processing of self-relevant information in the sport and exercise domain. It was hypothesized that exercise schematics would cognitively prefer consistent feedback over positive feedback (self-consistency principle), whereas affectively, participants without exercise self-schema would prefer positive feedback over consistent feedback (self-enhancement principle).DesignCross-sectional online study with a 2 × 3 mixed model design.Method472 subjects (52.54% female, M_age = 31.35, SD = 11.90) participated in an online-study providing them with bogus test results consistent with as well as positively and negatively deviating from their self-assessments in exercise-related aspects. To measure preference, affective and cognitive reactions were assessed after each feedback presentation.ResultsMixed-model ANOVAS (between-subject factor: exercise self-schema, within-subject factor: type of feedback) reveal significant interactions for both affective and cognitive reaction. However, these are not based on an interaction of the levels ‘consistent’ and ‘positive’ of type of feedback, but on an interaction of ‘negative’ and ‘consistent’ feedback. For exercise schematics, the gap between reactions to consistent and negative feedback is larger than for participants without exercise self-schema.ConclusionsThe original hypotheses could not be confirmed, indicating a general dominance of the self-enhancement principle. However, the unexpected interaction suggests that participants with exercise self-schema seem to devalue negative feedback more than those without exercise self-schema, which could be explained by self-consistency principles.     

Effects of decision-making on reactions to an evaluational stressor

The present study tested the hypothesis that an opportunity to make decisions enhances perceived control. This hypothesis predicts that decision-making will reduce the adverse effects of stress. Subjects worked on an intellectual task and their stress reactions were assessed using subjective and behavioral measures. Decision-making improved the highly anxious subjects' persistence with the task. This finding supports the hypothesis. However, less anxious subjects persisted less after being allowed to make decisions. Several explanations positing possible cognitive and motivational processes of the less anxious subjects are offered.     

An attributional approach to moods and the menstrual cycle.

Acceptance of an attribution pattern linking negative moods (depression, irritability) to the approach of menstruation and the likelihood of internal and external attributions were examined in a questionnaire study in which cycle phase (pre- versus postmenstrual), mood (positive versus negative), and environment (pleasant versus unpleasant) were varied. Subjects' rating indicated that (a) biology was judged important for explaining negative moods occurring premenstrually: (b) inconsistency between mood and environment produced more internal (personality) attributions, while consistency enhanced external attributions; and (c) emotionally expressive behavior was thought to reflect underlying personality dispositions despite extenuating situational factors (assumed personal causation). The theoretical relevance of the findings to a new conceptualization of premenstrual emotionality and to an attributional chain relating female self-concept and premenstrual tension is discussed.     

A study on the resistance of observation systems of observers' expectancies

Different sets of expectations were induced in groups of observers before asking them to observe a film. Four aspects of Hall's notation system for the observation of proxemic behavior (1963) were adopted for the purposes of this study and another observation aspect was added. All Ss observed the same scenes of the film. They only differed in the kind of information on experimenters' beliefs and the hypotheses of the observation study. Results indicate that induced expectancies influenced the recordings of the observers. Implications of these outcomes are discussed.     

Actors', partners', and observers' perceptions of sarcasm

This study compared actors', partners', and observers' perceptions of the amount of sarcasm used by participants (n = 80) in videotaped conversations. Significant differences were found among perceptions of actors, partners, and observers. Of the three perspectives, actors perceived themselves as using the greatest amount of sarcasm, followed by partners' perceptions of actors. Observers perceived actors as using the least amount of sarcasm. Correlations conducted to assess whether partners and observers recognized actors' individual attempts at sarcasm during the conversations were generally low.     

Effects of victim gender and physical vs. psychological trauma/injury on observers' perceptions of sexual assault and its aftereffects

Researchers have examined many underlying attitudes toward rape. Studies have focused on female victims while an increasing number of reported male rape victims has been overlooked. This study compared observers' attribution of guilt toward rape victims and their rapists. It also specified the trauma inflicted by either physical or psychological concomitants of rape victimization and compared the effect of such information on both blame and expectation of recovery. Participants were university students, primarily Caucasian, with mean ages 20.56 and 21.21 years for males and females, respectively. Female victims were judged more harshly than male victims. Length of imprisonment considered appropriate for guilty assailants was found to be greater when injury was done to one's own gender. Recovery was expected to be a lengthy process. Implications for social gender stereotyping and public attitudes concerning aftereffects of traumatic stress are discussed.

     

Effects of self-schema elaboration on affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant information

The basic assumption of the integrative self-schema model (ISSM; L.-E. Petersen, 1994; L.-E. Petersen, D. Stahlberg, & D. Dauenheimer, 1996; D. Stahlberg, L.-E. Petersen, & D. Dauenheimer, 1994, 1999) is that self-schema elaboration (schematic vs. aschematic) affects reactions to self-relevant information. This assumption is based on the idea that schematic dimensions occupy a more central position in the cognitive system than aschematic dimensions. In the first study, this basic prediction could be clearly confirmed: The results showed that schematic dimensions possessed stronger cognitive associations with other self-relevant cognitions as well as a higher resistance to change than aschematic dimensions did. In the second study, the main assumptions of the ISSM concerning the affective and cognitive reactions to self-relevant feedback were tested: The ISSM proposes that, on schematic dimensions, reactions to self-relevant feedback will most likely follow principles of self-consistency theory, whereas on aschematic dimensions positive feedback should elicit the most positive reactions that self-enhancement theory would predict. The experimental results clearly confirmed the hypotheses derived from the ISSM for affective reactions. Cognitive reactions, however, were in line with self-consistency principles and were not modified by the elaboration of the self-schema dimension involved.     

Affectionate same-sex touch: the influence of homophobia on observers' perceptions

The author extended the proposition (V. J. Derlega, R. J. Lewis, S. Harrison, B. A. Winstead, & R. Costanza, 1989) that the fear of being seen as homosexual accounts for the common finding that U.S. women engage in more same-sex touch than do U.S. men. The author proposed a theoretic model positing that the magnitude of homophobia's influence on behavior and on reactions to behavior is proportional to the likelihood that the behavior is sexual in nature. An experiment involving reactions to same-sex embraces demonstrated that, although homophobia was negatively related to evaluations of same-sex affectionate touch, the magnitude of the relationship covaried with the probability that the touch was sexual. The implications of these findings for longer range theory development are discussed.