Comparison of three cognitive strategies in altering pain behaviors on a cold pressor task

The efficacy of three cognitive strategies for coping with pain was examined in a cold-water pressor task in a sample of college students. Subjects were pretested and then randomly assigned to one of three treatment conditions (Paradoxical Intention, Rational Self-statement, or Self-observation) or to an expectancy control group. Following training in the respective cognitive strategies, all groups were given a posttest in the cold-water pressor to determine the effectiveness of the treatment. Pain thresholds, tolerances, and discomfort ratings were recorded for subjects in each condition. No differences were found between the Paradoxical Intention or Rational Self-statement groups and the Expectancy Control on any of the pain measures. The Self-observation treatment condition, however, had significantly higher pain tolerance scores than the Expectancy Control group. The findings were attributed to the subjects' dissociating the sensory aspects of the pain experience from the anxiety when focusing upon the coldness and wetness of the cold water.     

The cognitive mediation of thought-control strategies

Research suggests that people use various strategies to control their normally occurring intrusive thoughts. Strategies that involve worrying about the thought and self punishment appear to be associated with certain forms of psychopathology, such as obsessive-compulsive (OC) symptoms. The present study sought to examine whether dysfunctional beliefs associated with OC symptoms (e.g., beliefs that intrusive thoughts are highly significant) underlie the use of such thought control strategies. Ninety-three non-clinical participants completed self-report questionnaires measuring cognitive variables, thought-control strategies, and OC symptoms. Analyses revealed that overestimates of threat and responsibility, beliefs about the significance and need to control intrusions, the need for perfection and certainty, and scrupulosity were associated with the use of punishment, but not worry thought control strategies. These cognitive phenomena also mediated the relationship between OC symptoms and the use of punishment as a thought-control strategy. Results are discussed in terms of cognitive models of OC symptoms and their implications for cognitive-behavioral therapy.     

The effects of exemplary and cognitive models and self-rehearsal on children's interrogative strategies

Children aged 6, 8, and 10 years were exposed to three types of training procedures aimed at increasing their use of constraint-seeking questions and enhancing their problem-solving efficiency. One group observed an exemplary model who merely illustrated several constraint-seeking questions. Another group observed a cognitive model who, prior to asking each of her constraint-seeking questions, verbalized her strategy for formulating constraint-seeking questions and integrating the information gained from such questions. A third group received a combination of cognitive modeling and self-rehearsal training in which the children repeated statements representing key features of the constraint-seeking strategy before asking questions on a series of training items. Cognitive modeling alone was the most successful training procedure, effecting changes in both constraint-seeking questioning and problem-solving efficiency for children of all three age groups. Differences between cognitive and exemplary models were most notable among the youngest children, who appeared to require the additional guidance afforded through the verbalizations of the cognitive model.     

The influence of preferred coping style and cognitive strategy on laboratory-induced pain.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effects of matching an individual's coping style (low, mixed, or high monitoring) to an appropriate cognitive strategy (distraction or sensation monitoring) to improve pain management. DESIGN: This study used a split-plot factorial design in a laboratory setting. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Main outcomes were pain threshold, pain tolerance, pain intensity, pain affect, and anxiety. RESULTS: The results of the 2 x 3 x 3 (Experimental Condition x Coping Style x Trial) analysis of variance (ANOVA) interaction were significant for pain threshold scores, F(4, 178) = 2.95, p < .01. Low monitors in the matched distraction trial had higher pain threshold scores than during baseline, t(15) = -2.68, p = .017, and the mismatched sensation monitoring trial, t(15) = 2.80, p = .014. High monitors' pain threshold scores were higher than baseline only during the matched sensation monitoring trial, t(27) = -2.75, p = .010. The results of the 2 x 3 x 3 ANOVA interaction were not significant for pain tolerance scores; however, when the mixed monitors were excluded, the 3-way interaction was significant, F(2, 124) = 3.48, p < .05. The results were nonsignificant for pain intensity, pain affect, and anxiety. CONCLUSION: Results demonstrate that matching coping style to the appropriate cognitive strategy is important for improving pain threshold and pain tolerance; however, matching did not reduce pain intensity, pain affect, or anxiety. Future studies should explore the explanation for differential responses of high and low monitors and should test these hypotheses in a clinical setting.     

Social influences on cognitive strategies and cognitive development: The role of communication and instruction

Cognitive strategy training has been shown empirically to be extremely effective in enhancing learning and memory performance in retarded individuals. However, the theoretical status and applied utility of the strategy concept has been subjected to increasing criticism, particularly regarding the lack of definition and specificity in its use, when it is involved in instructional procedures applied to typical learning and information processing tasks. Extensions of research in language and communication provide a social basis for analyzing instruction, in terms of communication theory and pragmatics, and a possible approach to more general studies of the skills and strategies of information processing. The question arises whether rather disparate views of cognitive processing systems can be synthesized, or, by their mutual consideration, at least provide a basis for clearer articulation of research issues. A synthesis of prominent usages of the “strategic processing” construct derived from the social basis of communication theory is advanced.     

Gender effects in spatial orientation: cognitive profiles and mental strategies

Experimental evidence and meta-analyses offer some support for gender-related differences in visuo-spatial ability. However, few studies addressed this issue in an ecological context and/or in everyday tasks implying spatial abilities, such as geographical orientation. Moreover, the relation of specific strategies and gender is still unclear. In the present investigation, we compared men and women in a newly designed battery of spatial orientation tasks in which landmark, route and survey knowledge were considered. In addition, four visuo-spatial working memory (VSWM) tasks were presented. Significant differences favouring men in VSWM tasks were reported, supporting existing evidence. However, men and women did not significantly differ in orientation tasks performance. The patterns of correlation between working memory and spatial orientation tasks indicated that men and women used somewhat different strategies in carrying out the orientation tasks. In particular, active processes seem to play a greater role in females' performance, thus confirming the importance of this variable in interpreting gender effect in VSWM tasks. Altogether, results indicate that gender effects could well result from differences in cognitive strategies and support data indicating that adequate training could reduce or eliminate them. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The effects of universal pre-K on cognitive development

In this study of Oklahoma's universal pre-K program, the authors relied on a strict birthday eligibility criterion to compare "young" kindergarten children who just completed pre-K to "old" pre-K children just beginning pre-K. This regression-discontinuity design reduces the threat of selection bias. Their sample consisted of 1,567 pre-K children and 1,461 kindergarten children who had just completed pre-K. The authors estimated the impact of the pre-K treatment on Woodcock-Johnson Achievement test scores. The authors found test impacts of 3.00 points (0.79 of the standard deviation for the control group) for the Letter-Word Identification score, 1.86 points (0.64 of the standard deviation of the control group) for the Spelling score, and 1.94 points (0.38 of the standard deviation of the control group) for the Applied Problems score. Hispanic, Black, White, and Native American children all benefit from the program, as do children in diverse income brackets, as measured by school lunch eligibility status. The authors conclude that Oklahoma's universal pre-K program has succeeded in enhancing the school readiness of a diverse group of children.     

The effects of age and intelligence on the dark-interval threshold

The threshold for the detection of the dark interval between two flashes of light (DIT) was investigated for 240 school children aged 6–17. It was found that the threshold showed a linear decline with chronological age. a finding attributed to physiological aging of the visual receptor system producing diminished persistence of the initial stimulus. This finding was counter to the expectation that the DIT would also indicate the growing potency of a higher-order cognitive process (temporal integration of stimulus traces) which would have caused the DIT to rise at some point along the chronological scale.     

The influence of strategies on relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The aim of this study was to test the effect of administration method on relationships between working memory span tasks and cognitive skills. Participants completed both participant-administered and experimenter-administered working memory measures in both verbal and visuospatial domains. Although the tasks were equally reliable, the additional time taken to implement strategies in the participant-administered tasks in the verbal domain reduced the correlations between working memory and reading comprehension and arithmetic. These findings did not extend to a visuospatial working memory measure, for which there was no significant difference between the participant-administered and experimenter-administered tasks in terms of their relationships with comprehension and arithmetic. However, performance on experimenter-administered working memory tasks in both verbal and visuospatial domains predicted unique variance in comprehension and arithmetic while controlling for scores on the participant-administered tasks. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for working memory research.     

The influence of strategies on relationships between working memory and cognitive skills

The aim of this study was to test the effect of administration method on relationships between working memory span tasks and cognitive skills. Participants completed both participant-administered and experimenter-administered working memory measures in both verbal and visuospatial domains. Although the tasks were equally reliable, the additional time taken to implement strategies in the participant-administered tasks in the verbal domain reduced the correlations between working memory and reading comprehension and arithmetic. These findings did not extend to a visuospatial working memory measure, for which there was no significant difference between the participant-administered and experimenter-administered tasks in terms of their relationships with comprehension and arithmetic. However, performance on experimenter-administered working memory tasks in both verbal and visuospatial domains predicted unique variance in comprehension and arithmetic while controlling for scores on the participant-administered tasks. The results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications for working memory research.     

Differential effects of avoidant and attentional coping strategies on adaptation to chronic and recent-onset pain

Examined the effectiveness of attentional and avoidant coping strategies for somatic, behavioral, and psychological adaptation to clinical pain. Subjects were 30 chronic and 30 recent-onset pain patients who used either attentional or avoidant coping strategies in response to their pain. Based on a review of the coping literature, it was hypothesized that subjects with recent-onset pain would demonstrate greater adaptation (lower anxiety, depression, lower pain severity and somatization ratings, and higher levels of social activity) when employing avoidant rather than attentional strategies. Chronic pain subjects using attentional strategies were predicted to demonstrate greater adaptation than chronic pain subjects using avoidant strategies. The results supported this "time x strategy" hypothesis. Implications for pain treatment programs are discussed, and suggestions are made for matching pain duration with patient coping style.     

The influence of stimulus scale-interval upon the assessment of pain threshold

An experiment concerning the influence of the scale of stimulus values upon the perception of heat-pain is reported in which it is found that the value of the threshold stimulus is dependent upon the size of the steps between successive stimuli.

The results are analysed in the light of a paper by Brown and Cane (1959) in which they point out that the value of a sensory threshold yielded by the Limiting Method is mathematically dependent upon the size of the steps between successive values of the variable stimulus. The threshold values reported here are found to be dependent on the step-size between stimuli to a greater extent than that which would be predicted by Brown and Cane.

In view of these results, an attempt is made to explain the wide variety of pain threshold values reported in the literature.     

The effects of incorrect pain expectations on acquired fear and pain responses

Previous experimental research on the effects of incorrect intensity expectations of aversive events can be criticized because intensity expectations were not manipulated independently from changes in objective intensity. The present study aims at investigating the effects of incorrect intensity expectations on the immediate and later responses to a painful stimulus, and on the acquisition of anticipatory responses, with proper experimental control. Subjects (n = 62) received 20 painful stimuli of varying intensity. In the control group intensities were correctly signalled on all trials by an analogue signal. On 3 trials the signal was too large in the overprediction condition, and too small in the underestimation condition. Underpredicted painful experiences were related to subsequent higher pain responses on the physiological level, but not on the subjective level; and to increased anticipatory responses (increased pain expectations, uncertainty, subjective fear, skin conductance responses). Skin conductance level also indicated increased fear after underpredicted experiences. Overpredicted painful experiences were related to a faster decrease in subjective fear compared to the control group, but did not influence other variables. The findings support the notion that underpredictions contribute to the acquistion of fear and disrupt habituation processes. The asymmetrical processing of the two kinds of incorrectly predicted experiences is discussed.     

The effects of peer ostracism on children's cognitive processes

In adults, experiences of social exclusion have been shown to not only adversely affect mood and threaten primary needs, but also to disrupt cognitive processes. The aim of this study was to provide an initial test of the effects of social exclusion on cognitive processes in children (N = 55; aged 8–12 years). Ostracism was simulated experimentally using the Cyberball paradigm—a computer-based ball-throwing game that participants believed they were playing with two peers over the internet. Following this, participants were administered subtests from the Working Memory Test Battery for Children. Girls who were ostensibly ignored during the game demonstrated poorer cognitive performance than those who were included by their co-players, while boys did not. Findings are discussed in relation to those previously reported in adult research and evidence of gender-specific correlates of relational aggression in children and adolescents.     

Electrocutaneous stimulation L The effects of stimulus parameters on absolute threshold

Thresholds for detecting electrical stimulation were measured as a function of (1) body locus, (2) electrode configuration, (3) stimulus waveform, and (4) pulse duration. The results were: (1) the forehead gave slightly, but not reliably, lower thresholds than the abdomen; (2) concentric electrodes gave slightly, but not reliably, lower thresholds than unifocal electrodes; (3) cathodal monophasic (?) pulses and biphasic pulses (+/? and ?/+) gave identical thresholds, while anodal monophasic (+) pulses gave higher thresholds; and (4) thresholds decreased as pulse duration increased up to .5 msec, but changed less with longer pulses.     

Relation of skin temperature to pain threshold

Two recent studies have established a very close relationship between environmentally-induced changes in skin temperature and the pain threshold for radiant heat stimuli. The present experiment was designed to verify the relationship by using as pain test area the skin surface of the back of the hand, as the skin temperature here is likely to vary from individual to individual much more than for the forehead.

Subjects were 50 neurotic and depressed patients of both sexes, age range 20-79. Skin temperatures were recorded on the right hand until a steady level was reached, then radiant heat stimuli were applied to a blackened area of the left hand. Results showed a highly significant negative correlation between pain threshold and skin temperature level, while differences due to age and sex were negligible. Drops in skin temperature were a common reaction during pain testing.

The significance of this finding is discussed in terms of the adaptive function of skin temperature changes and their relation to tissue damage. The results are consistent with the view that the pain experience, although having its distinctive sensory components, is intimately related to, and affected by, central factors of autonomic regulation. Some implications for general experimental and clinical research on pain are briefly outlined.