《管子》德论研究

德的本义为“目视于途”,在由其本义向哲学、伦理、政治和经济范畴演进和抽象的过程中,《管子》是一个重要的环节和阶段。本文对出现于《管子》书中的237个德字进行了系统的梳理,阐释了体现在《管子》德论中的哲学、伦理、政治和经济思想的内涵。     

《管子》法家两派说

现存《管子》一书部分篇章被认为属于法家系统著作。一些学者认为《管子》是齐法家的代表,甚至认为《管子》以齐法家政治思想为主导,其特点是"法教并重",强调《管子》法家与商、申、韩等为代表的三晋法家思想有别。而另一些学者则将《管子》中的一些篇章与三晋法家同等看待。事实上,《管子》中的法家作品应分属不同的两派,一派体现出"法教并重"的特点,可用"齐法家"概念概括;而《法禁》《重令》《法法》《任法》《明法》《明法解》《正世》等7篇则并不体现"法教并重"观念,应属于三晋法家一派。     

论《管子》与《晏子春秋》中的教育思想

《管子》与《晏子春秋》作为两本流传至今的诸子著作,不仅涉及政治、经济、军事、伦理等,也涉及到教育,并将教育提高到治国必需的高度来认识,来对待。本文依据《管子》和《晏子春秋》,阐释了它们主张教育的目的,教育的范围,教育的内容,教育的方法等等。本文认为《管子》和《晏子春秋》中的教育思想虽有着其不可避免的历史局限性,但却仍对后世产生了一定的影响。《管子》、《晏子春秋》所倡导并采用的一些教育方法,即使对今天的教育来讲,仍不失一定的借鉴意义。     

思想政治教育视域下《管子》思想的当代解读

《管子》关于礼、法、仁、义的论述是其理论之精髓,涉及了政治、法律、道德、教育等各个方面。《管子》的思想不仅对治国理政具有重要的借鉴意义,对思想政治教育的发展也有重要的推动作用。分析《管子》思想的精髓,辨析礼法、仁义的关系,适应当代法治国家的建设对思想政治教育提出的新要求,将《管子》的礼法、仁义思想与思想政治教育中德育与法育、内在思想与外在行为的教育与发展对接,有重要的当代意义与价值。     

智者善谋——论《管子》的谋略思想

“智者善谋”,即有智慧的人善于谋划,这是《管子》一书中的名言。(见《霸言》)《管子》中谋略思想十分丰富。在这部著作中,举凡经济、政治、文化、教育、军事、外交和个人修养、人际关系等各领域的智谋韬略,应有尽有。其精言妙道足以启迪今人,留传后世。本文拟就《管子》谋略思想溯源、论谋略的功用、谋略类型举例、谋略的认识基础、辩证机理和一般性质等略陈己见,就教于同仁。     

论《淮南子》的管子观

作为秦汉道家的重要论著,《淮南子》对管子有着多方面的思想认识,表达出由衷的尊崇之情,将其看作春秋时期的政治伟人之一。虽然《淮南子》对管子生平所言不多,但极为推重,赞赏其忍辱进取、兴国为民的政治精神,称扬其尊王攘夷、佐桓兴齐的政治功业,视之为“贤相”楷模。立足黄老,《淮南子》论管与儒、法家有异,彰显出鲜明的道家精神,并试图借鉴管子兴齐的政治经验,探求西汉王朝的长盛之谋。     

论《鹖冠子》与管子、《管子》的关系

《管子》是管子及其后学思想所汇集的作品集,由齐国学者编纂而成。管子、《管子》一些思想观念与《鹖冠子》相同。通过比较《鹖冠子》一些篇章与《管子》思想,发现鹖冠子、《鹖冠子》在君主修养、施政、政治、军事等方面的思想观念,与《管子》有不少相同之处。可见,《鹖冠子》与《管子》、齐国思想文化的关系极密切,《鹖冠子》应受《管子》影响。     

本世纪以来《管子》研究简介

一、中国《管子》研究回顾 本世纪以来,从宏观纵向的视角来看,《管子》研究在不同的历史时期具有不同情形的特点,大致可分为以下几个阶段: (一)1900～1949年。这一时期共出版、发表有关《管子》研究的专著与论文60多篇,其中专著主要有黄汉的《管子经济思想》,俞寰澄的《管子之统制经济》,梁启超的《管子传》,罗根泽的《管子探源》,王毓瑚的《管仲》等。这一时期的研究涉及《管子》的经济思想、政治思想和原著注释。其中经济思想研究占绝对多数。     

论《管子》中的教育思想

现行《管子》一书为汉朝刘向编定[1]。作为一部重要的学术著作,《管子》书中蕴含着丰富的政治、经济、军事、教育、哲学、社会及自然科学方面的思想内容。作为教育著作而论,《管子》的教育思想、教育内容、学生管理等其内容丰富多彩,而且独具特色。     

《管子》“廉”思想探析

《管子》借鉴吸收先哲思想中“廉”的智慧,并赋予它充沛的生命力。《管子》把“廉”与政治结合起来考察,使之成为立国的四大纲要之一。《管子》的“廉”思想在社会生活和政治生活领域具体表现为：廉正为人、廉洁奉公、廉明治国。《管子》的“廉”思想在哲学、经济、法律、教育等方面均显示出与众不同的理论特色。     

源于“反常”终于“常理”的禀赋效应

如果忽略收入影响和交易成本, 愿意为一样物品支付的价格应等于愿意出售的价格。而塞勒教授却发现, 现实生活中有一些“反常”现象, 个体会对自己所拥有的物品赋予更高的价值, 造成“愿意支付价格”和“愿意出售价格”的不一致。塞勒利用预期理论中的损失厌恶对这些反常现象进行解释, 并将该现象称为禀赋效应(endowment effect)。此后, 众多研究者从不同角度对该效应进行了探索和论证。文章详细梳理了禀赋效应的多种解释机制, 包括损失厌恶、心理所有权理论、偏差的认知过程以及进化的观点等, 论证了禀赋效应符合“常理”的原因, 同时也探讨了禀赋效应在商业销售策略和政府拆迁政策等方面的应用前景。     

Mementos and the endowment effect

This research provides evidence for a new moderator of the endowment effect: having a memento of the endowed object. Three studies adapting classic endowment effect paradigms and using a variety of endowment objects and mementos demonstrate that having a memento of an endowment increases willingness to trade the endowment and decreases selling prices for the endowment. We provide evidence that mementos attenuate the endowment effect regardless of whether the memento is a separate small gain when facing the loss of the endowment or a small part of the original endowment that is kept. Examining mementos in context of the endowment effect not only provides insight into the psychology underlying the reluctance to part with one's endowment but also other consumer disposition behaviors.     

The influence of involvement on the endowment effect: The moveable value function

The endowment effect is based on the loss aversion built into Prospect Theory's asymmetric value function. This paper posits that the level of consumer involvement with a decision is a moderator of the endowment effect. It is proposed that high involvement increases the slope differential between the loss and gain regions of the value function, enhancing loss aversion. The research further posits that higher involvement is accompanied by higher arousal and cognitive processing which produces stronger negativity in thoughts. The argument for these effects is discussed in the context of evolutionary theory. We conclude that consumers are more loss averse in high versus low involvement conditions.     

The relationship between endowment and ownership effects in memory across cultures

An object one owns is typically more highly valued than an equivalent object owned by another person. This endowment effect has been attributed to the aversion of loss of one’s possessions (through selling), or the added value of an item due to self-association (through owning). To date, investigation of these mechanisms has been hampered by the between-subjects methodology traditionally employed to measure endowment. Over two experiments, we report a novel within-subjects method for measuring an endowment bias. In these studies, Western participants showed enhanced valuation of owned items, whereas East-Asian participants did not. This endowment bias also correlated with the ownership effect in memory (a measure of self-referential processing) in Western, but not East-Asian participants. Our results suggest that the endowment effect is partly predicated on the same factors that influence the ownership effect and that this commonality is likely linked to conceptions of ownership specifically, and self-concept more generally.     

How beliefs influence the relative magnitude of pleasure and pain

Loss aversion is an economic assumption about utility—people value giving up a good more than they value getting it. It also has hedonic meaning—the pain of a loss is greater in magnitude than the pleasure of a comparable gain. But value and pleasure are not necessarily identical. We test the hedonic interpretation of loss aversion in experimental markets. With hedonic forecasts, sellers imagine the pain of losing their endowment, and buyers imagine the pleasure of being endowed. With hedonic experiences, sellers rate the pleasure of having the endowment, and buyers rate the pain of being without it. Contrary to loss aversion, predicted pleasure is greater in magnitude than predicted pain, and experienced pleasure surpasses experienced pain. We show that the relative magnitude of pleasure and pain depends on beliefs about the likelihood of outcomes, as well as utilities. Surprise makes gains more pleasurable and losses more painful. With surprising gains and expected losses, pleasure can surpass pain. But when gains and losses are equally likely (or losses are surprising and gains are expected), the opposite pattern can occur. Finally, within‐group and between‐group prices are significantly correlated with hedonic experiences. Sellers who feel better with their endowments assign higher selling prices, and buyers who feel worse about the absence of endowment assign higher buying prices. Despite the fact that hedonic experiences deviate from loss aversion, these emotions predict the endowment effect. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Heart strings and purse strings: Carryover effects of emotions on economic decisions

Abstract— We examined the impact of specific emotions on the endowment effect, the tendency for selling prices to exceed buying or "choice" prices for the same object. As predicted by appraisal-tendency theory, disgust induced by a prior, irrelevant situation carried over to normatively unrelated economic decisions, reducing selling and choice prices and eliminating the endowment effect. Sadness also carried over, reducing selling prices but increasing choice prices—producing a "reverse endowment effect" in which choice prices exceeded selling prices. The results demonstrate that incidental emotions can influence decisions even when real money is at stake, and that emotions of the same valence can have opposing effects on such decisions.     

Beyond mere ownership: transaction demand as a moderator of the endowment effect

Transaction demand refers to the motivation to complete a transaction. As transaction demand increases, owners should sell at lower prices and buyers should buy at higher ones. It was predicted that the endowment effect—the tendency for minimum selling price to exceed maximum buying price for a particular commodity—should be minimized when buyers and sellers have high transaction demand. The results of two experiments supported this hypothesis: In Experiment 1, the endowment effect was observed when participants imagined another individual wanting to buy from or sell to them, but not when they imagined wanting to buy from or sell to another individual. In Experiment 2, a reversal of the endowment effect was observed when transaction demand was high for both prospective buyers and sellers. The findings highlight the importance of motivational factors in addition to other factors (e.g., loss aversion, reference dependence) in determining behavior.     

The extensibility of the endowment effect to others is mediated by degree of intimacy

Recent studies have suggested that the endowment effect may actually be a type of self‐referent cognitive bias due to the mere ownership of an object. However, it is not adequately understood how the ownership of an object affects the endowment effect. The current research is the first to explore if the endowment effect could be extended to different ownerships. The results suggest that the endowment effect extends to goods owned by their mothers, romantic partners and close friends, but not acquaintances. Furthermore, the level of intimacy between individuals and mothers/romantic partners/close friends/acquaintances mediates the relationship between the effect of ownership and the extensibility of the endowment effect. These findings are consistent with the mere ownership effect that ownership increases valuation by enhancing the salience of the self.     

Attributions of trust and the calculus of reciprocity

This research investigated trust and reciprocity in two experiments using the Trust Game. In the Trust Game, Player 1 can “trust” an unknown Player 2 by sending some portion of a monetary endowment. The amount sent triples on its way to Player 2, who can then “reciprocate” by returning as much as he or she wishes to Player 1. Initial endowments were either $10 or $20 and were known to recipients; amounts sent were experimentally manipulated and varied from $2 to the entire endowment. Although many trusted parties returned enough money to equalize outcomes, trustors only benefited, on average, when they sent all or almost all of their endowments. Results suggested that recipients viewed sending less than everything as a lack of trust and that felt obligations mediated choices to reciprocate. These and other results contrast markedly with traditional, incremental models of the trust process, which suggest that initial trustors should take small risks and build trust gradually.     

Disentangling Psychological Sources of Overpricing in Anticommons Dilemmas: Strategic Incentives,Endowment Effects,and Interdependence of Outcomes

Anticommons are a special kind of mixed‐motive dilemma in which negative effects for society are caused by the excessive use of exclusion rights. In two fully incentivized experiments on trading goods with risky prospects, we disentangle three psychological sources that have been suggested to contribute to increased pricing in anticommons dilemmas: the effects of strategic incentives for overpricing, endowment effects, and interdependence of outcomes. Our results show that pricing of risky prospects in the anticommons is only marginally influenced by endowment status, whereas participants readily respond to incentives to overprice and to the interdependence of outcomes. Endowment effects are reduced both when strategic incentives to overprice are provided and when outcomes of subjects become interdependent. As a result, endowment effects for risky prospects are strongly reduced or even disappear completely in anticommons dilemmas. Our results render support for an interaction model instead of an additive effect model in which both incentives and endowment effects would drive up pricing. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.