柳宗元:唐代三教融合思潮中的儒家代表

与佛、道二教以"佛"或以"道"为基点的"三教融合"主张相呼应,柳宗元提出了以"儒"为基点的"三教融合"观。他不但明确提出了"三教融合"的原则与方向,而且建构起了三教关系张力下的宇宙本体论与"三教融合"视域中的心性论。柳宗元是唐代"三教融合"思潮中的儒家代表。他与佛教的宗密、道教的杜光庭并列为三,分别代表了各自立场之上"三教融合"的方向。     

南宋元明时期佛教"三教合一"思想略论

南宋元明时期的高僧大德,率多沿袭北宋延寿、契嵩、赞宁、智圆等人的做法,为了佛教的生存与发展,继续高扬"三教合一"的大旗.与同时期的理学和道教相比,佛教"三教合一"思想的特点在于多从三教关系的和谐出发提倡三教一家,且多以佛教为高为优,强调有差等的三教合一.应该说,"三教合一"思想的发展,提供了处理多元文化关系的先例,在今天这个文化更为多元的时代,颇具现实意义.     

退却、出新与融合:试探社会合作视域下的佛教中国化

基于社会合作伦理及其整体均衡的视角,本文重新审视了佛教的中国化过程。从"社会合作伦理"类型来说,佛教在人与自然合作、代际合作、纵向合作、横向合作方面均显示出退缩,但在个体自合作方面则有发展与出新,并成为其优势社会合作伦理。从"社会合作伦理的整体均衡"来说,中国社会是在佛、儒、道三教"菜单式"社会合作伦理格局基础上,融合三教各自优势社会合作伦理构建了"社会合作伦理的整体均衡",由此形成了"三教圆融"和"多元一体"宗教格局。     

论六朝时期的三教关系与世界宗教大同理想

六朝时期是中国文化发展的重要阶段,随着汉末儒家名教权威的失落,带有道家色彩的魏晋玄学开始登上思想文化的历史舞台。此时的佛教亦经过大量的译经活动及其传播,在中国获得了空前发展;在佛教刺激下,中国早期道教也摆脱了原始状态而进入成熟阶段。于是,包括宗教思想在内的中国文化格局,在六朝时期又获得了多元化的发展,形成了规模宏伟的儒、释、道三教并行、冲突、互动与融合的新局面。从此,儒、释、道三教关系的展开,一直贯穿在以后的中国思想文化的历史进程中,由此构成中华民族精神成长和中国历史与文明稳定发展的基石。本文即尝试从五个方面揭示上述寻求"宗教大同"理想的历史借鉴和儒、释、道三教从矛盾冲突走向融合的理论证明。     

儒佛道三教关系研究的方法与实践——洪修平教授访谈录

正张勇(以下简称张):习近平主席在巴黎联合国教科文组织总部发表演讲时指出:"佛教产生于古代印度,但传入中国后,经过长期演化,佛教同中国儒家文化和道家文化融合发展,最终形成了具有中国特色的佛教文化,给中国人的宗教信仰、哲学观念、文学艺术、礼仪习俗等留下了深刻影响。"习主席这句话提到佛教中国化及儒佛道三教关系问题,高屋建瓴的观点折射出三教关系研究在今天的重要性和迫切性。您是国内率先从事三教关系研究的专家,在这方面的研究成果丰硕。请先     

儒佛之辨与王阳明三教思想的变化

三教异同是宋明理学的一个重要议题。但是与朱子学主张的三教三道、"本天"与"本心"之分不同,王阳明认为儒佛道三教同出一源,三教一道,圣人既"本天"又"本心","本心"即是"本天"。儒家与佛老的差异不在以心为学,也不是认心为性,而是在于见道有偏全,以及由此产生的经世与出世之分。"虚无"也并非佛老专属,圣人也讲"虚无","虚无"既是良知的本然状态,也是境界上的无执无着。王阳明对儒佛道三教思想异同的认识,在很大程度上改变了北宋以来理学儒佛之辨的致思方向,加深了儒佛道三教在心性论上的互动与融合。     

从汤用彤论玄学“反本”问题看三教会通——以理学发生史为中心

由末达本的"反本"问题是三教会通的生长点,在魏晋南北朝成为时代思潮的中心问题,也是复性论兴起的前奏。以此为纲便可一以贯之地把魏晋南北朝玄学史乃至中国思想史上许多表面互不关联的现象贯穿起来。汤用彤首创从本末之辨的角度来解释三教之争,总结出玄学是以"由末返本"的方式融合儒道释,从而开创了现代意义上玄学与三教关系的研究。汤用彤是对儒道释三教发展史有着通盘把握的前辈大师,系统总结他在这方面的贡献,是推进当前三教关系研究的一条捷径。本文以魏晋南北朝本末之辨到理学缘起为中心,对汤用彤关于"反本"观念源流的考辨进行梳理,进而揭示其汉魏两晋南北朝研究的治学思路和独具慧眼的问题意识,希望有助于理清魏晋南北朝时期复杂的三教关系及理学缘起的脉络。     

梵华重组:神清《北山录》研究

从"诸子百家"到"罢黜百家,独尊儒术"再到"三教合一",佛教作为外来思想文化体系被组合进中国传统思想文化体系之中,有赖于历代高僧大德的不懈努力,先有汉晋南北朝时的相争,后有唐宋之际的重组。其中,神清《北山录》属于重组时期贡献卓著的代表,借助寻求梵华思想文化的相同、相融、相补,赢得了中国传统思想文化护卫者的理解与接受,在唐宋以降的"三教"融合与内学、外学并置演变中功不可没。     

善昭《三教》浅析

善昭禅师的《三教》,集中体现了宋代高僧处理儒道佛三教关系的基本思路。善昭禅师认为儒家之学如雨露一般润泽着万民的心田,是国家实现繁荣昌盛所必不可少的思想因素和精神力量。在道教庞杂的思想和繁多的道术中,善昭禅师最为看重的是老子的见素抱朴思想。善昭作为中国佛教禅宗临济宗的一代祖师,他最为推崇的自然还是佛教。善昭禅师的《三教》就是中国思想文化领域中"三教"融合发展趋势的体现,同时自然也会对这一发展趋势产生强有力地促进作用。     

张商英三教“鼎足之不可缺一”的思想

北宋著名学者、政治家张商英当理学兴起之时,回应欧阳修、二程的批佛言论,主张儒释道三教融合、鼎足而立,不可缺一。认为三教均有补于治世。一定程度地看到儒家治世思想之流弊,提倡以佛法、道书济儒教之穷。从他一再把儒学称之为"吾儒"、"吾教"而言,表明他在一定程度上还是以儒为主来调和儒佛、融合三教的。     

Implicit Learning and Concept Learning

In Experiments 1 and 2, subjects were exposed to letter strings that followed a pattern—the second letter was always the same. This exposure was disguised as a test of immediate memory. Following this training, subjects could discriminate new letter strings following the pattern from letter strings not following the pattern more often than would be expected by chance, which is the traditional evidence for concept learning. Discrimination was also better than would be predicted from subjects' explicit report of the pattern, demonstrating the co-occurrence of concept learning and implicit learning. In Experiment 3, rules were learned explicitly. Discrimination was worse than would be predicted from subjects' explicit report, validating the implicit learning paradigm. In Experiment 4, deviations from a prototypical pattern were presented during training. In the test of discrimination, prototypes were as familiar as old deviations and more familiar than new deviations, even when considering only implicit knowledge. Experiment 5 found implicit knowledge of a familiar concept. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that the distinguishing features of a concept can be learned implicitly, and that one type of implicit learning is concept learning.     

类别学习中分类学习与推理学习的对比研究

本研究对类别学习中分类学习与推理学习进行了对比.实验中要求被试从成对呈现的项目中选择一个更典型的A,并且要求被试将典型的A和典型的B画出来.测试中所呈现项目诊断性程度或典型性程度不同.研究结果表明,分类学习者主要受诊断性信息的影响,而推理学习者主要受典型性信息的影响.即,分类学习者关注类别间信息,而推理学习者关注类别内信息.     

内隐学习和外显学习关系评述

文章从内隐学习与外显学习的区别、联系以及相互作用三方面,对这两个概念集合间的关系进行了辨析。最初,内隐学习这一概念的提出,是源于其与外显学习在现象学、实验操作、神经生理学以及学习机制等方面的诸多不同。近年来,虽然内隐学习的独立地位已被充分确立,但是,也有越来越多的证据表明,内隐学习和外显学习之间的独立性是相对的,它们之间存在紧密的联系和相互作用,任何一个学习任务都是内隐和外显学习的结合物。最后,作者结合自己的实验研究进一步提出了,内隐学习和外显学习之间相互权衡的动态关系。     

间隔学习与测试效应对学习判断的影响

文章两个实验用于研究间隔学习和测试效应对即刻学习判断及其准确性的影响,结果表明：（1）间隔学习促进记忆保持力,降低即刻学习判断中对困难学习材料的高估并提高学习判断相对准确性。（2）重学前预测试具有增强记忆痕迹的功能,在间隔学习的基础上显著提高了学习判断相对准确性。（3）外部线索应当区分,间隔学习和预测试属于不同的外部线索。     

Teaching and Learning Logic in a Virtual Learning Environment

Teaching and learning in a virtual learning environment (VLE)poses some difficulties, but also challenges and opportunitiesto rethink the whole learning process, particularly in abstractsubjects like logic or high level mathematics. On the otherhand, resources and ways to work, now available in VLEs, mightsoon extend to all kinds of environments. In this paper, wewill present experiences at the Open University of Catalonia(UOC), a particular VLE, concerning the whole process of teachinglogic and mathematics. In addition, we will discuss some challengesand we will present some innovation projects allowed by thepresent and near future technologies.     

Learning and understanding

Short texts containing rather difficult pieces of logical argument were presented, sometimes with illustrative graphs and sometimes without, to girls from the sixth form of a grammar school. They were required to study these, and recall afterwards what they were about. It was found that frequently there was a comparatively accurate recall of many of the individual items of the texts, but that certain essential points in the argument were omitted. Thus learning of detail could occur when there was no general understanding of the meaning. The effect of the illustrative graphs was to make the recalls even less coherent.     

Paradigms in Measure Theoretic Learning and in Informant Learning

We investigate many paradigms of identifications for classes of languages (namely: consistent learning, EX learning, learning with finitely many errors, behaviorally correct learning, and behaviorally correct learning with finitely many errors) in a measure-theoretic context, and we relate such paradigms to their analogues in learning on informants. Roughly speaking, the results say that most paradigms in measure-theoretic learning wrt some classes of distributions (called canonical) are equivalent to the corresponding paradigms for identification on informants.     

Discrimination Learning and Discrimination Reversal Learning in Normal and Feebleminded Children

Two studies compared methods of estimating factor scores for the Child's Report of Parental Behavior Inventory. In Study I, least squares factor scores for 5th and 6th graders were computed and correlated with estimates obtained by multiple regression, weighted summation, and unweighted summation with either (a) all scales best defining each factor, (b) the three best, or (c) the two best defining scales. All three estimation methods were highly accurate, and estimates obtained with three and even two scales per factor still correlated highly with the factor scores. In Study 11, factor scores for college students were correlated with estimates obtained by multiple regression and unweighted summation of the same subsets of scales. Again both estimation methods were highly accurate, and reducing the number of scales did not markedly reduce the correspondence of estimated scores to exact scores.     

Habitual Learning as Being-in-the-World: On Merleau-Ponty and the Experience of Learning

In Phenomenology of Perception,both intellectualism and empiricism were blamed for not grasping consciousness in the act of learning.This was,Merleau-Ponty thought,due to an objective volatilizing of the subjective role of the lived body in perception.In order to overcome the difficulties in the tradition of learning and the philosophy of consciousness,Merleau-Ponty's next important step was to take maximal grip as a central case of learning.To him,learning as being-in-the-world,basically has to be sketched out in embodied and socially contextualized situations.Drawing upon this asymmetrical identity from Merleau-Ponty,our argument in this paper is that leaming is best understood as a phenomenon that involves the leamer's engagement with the world and her intention to make sense of its structures.A new perspective is thus employed to present learning as an embodied and socially embedded phenomenon,which is always projected by habitual experience and involves transcendence.These characteristics of learning are brought together in an integral and comprehensive way and have relevance to studies of learning in institutions and in daily experience.