The awakening cortisol response: methodological issues and significance

The awakening cortisol response (ACR) is a discrete and distinctive part of the cortisol circadian cycle. In healthy adults salivary free cortisol concentrations increase by between 50 and 160% in the first 30 min immediately post-awakening (approximate average increase of 9 nmol/l, range 4-15 nmol/l, estimated to be equivalent to about three secretory episodes). However there are no agreed norms for the absolute concentrations of free cortisol in saliva either immediately post-awakening (range of 4.7-18.5 nmol/l) or 30 min post-awakening (range of 8.6-21.9 nmol/l). This review explores reasons for these discrepancies in normative data including confounding factors such as gender, age, awakening time, light and participant adherence. Although the physiological role of the ACR has not been clearly defined evidence is discussed that suggests it is under a distinct regulatory influence, different from the rest of the diurnal cortisol secretory cycle. Despite the difficulties associated with its measurement a range of studies have demonstrated an association between the ACR and psychosocial variables, stress and health. However it remains unclear whether positive affect and good health are consistently associated with larger or smaller awakening responses. It is early days in the search for the role and significance of the ACR. Its putative role in the regulation of physiological function across the day (e.g. the immune system) and its sensitivity to psychosocial variables make it a prime candidate as an intermediary linking mind and health.     

The sociological study of suicide: methodological issues

This paper is a critical review of selected methodological issues in the sociological study of suicide. It first distinguishes between two broad research orientations: the micro and macro approaches to the subject. The paper than focuses on a critical assessment of the dominant macro-level methodology. Three recurrent problems are identified: measurement issues on four key variables (suicide and parasuicide, economic conditions, religion, and political conditions such as war); problems in studying the effect of mass media stories on suicide; and reasons why we need to adopt a cross-national method in order to test sociological theories for contextual effects. Partial remedies to many of these problems are discussed.     

Individual differences in habituation: Some methodological and conceptual issues

The personality correlates of habituation were investigated. A moderate intensity tone was presented 20 times on each of three sessions, and skin conductance and heart rate were recorded. There were no relationships between individual differences in rate of habituation and any of the personality dimensions assessed (which included, among others, manifest anxiety and introversion-extraversion). Some possible reasons are discussed for this lack of results, as well as for conflicting findings which fill the literature. Specifically, various methods of measuring habituation are examined and their interrelationships described. None of the measures derived showed adequate consistency either across sessions or over response modalities.     

Parent-adolescent health conversations as action: Theoretical and methodological issues

Abstract

A qualitative research method based on action theory is proposed and illustrated for use in health psychology and health promotion research. Action refers to the goal-directed and intentional behaviors of individual and groups. Action theory has the advantage of using the perspectives provided by manifest behavior, internal processes, and social meaning in the analysis of action. In this article, the actions under consideration are the health-related conversations of parents and their adolescent children. The approach is premised on an understanding of health promotion as a family task constructed through actions such as conversations between family members. Health conversations in two parent-adolescent dyads are used to illustrate the method. The analysis includes the identification of goals, functional steps, and elements and their relation to the family health promotion project. Specific attention is paid to data gathering and analysis issues and their implications for health promotion research.     

Processes of patient decision making: Theoretical and methodological issues

Abstract

There is a paucity of research studying patients' decision making processes. Traditional normative approaches investigating human decision have presented rational, analytic processing as a ‘gold standard’ for decision making with decision aids developed to facilitate such thinking. This paradigm has been challenged by the recent emergence of naturalistic decision making. Naturalistic approaches argue for techniques modelled closer to how decisions are actually made in ‘real life’. Early work in this evolving field suggests the importance of more automatic, intuitive processing such as the use of heuristic short-cuts. This paper discusses the contribution of naturalistic decision theory and assesses its usefulness as an alternative to classical decision approaches in investigating patient decision making. Approaches for measuring underlying cognitive processes are also critically discussed.     

Control groups in psychosocial intervention research: ethical and methodological issues

This article summarizes a National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) workshop that was convened to address the ethical and methodological issues that arise when conducting controlled psychosocial interventions research and introduces 6 thoughtful and inspiring papers presented by workshop participants. These papers, on topics ranging from informed consent to ethnic minority issues, reflect the depth and breadth of expertise represented by the multidisciplinary group of scientists and ethicists present at the meeting. More extensive follow-up, particularly from federal research applications and publications, of how investigators balance the need for strong research design with ethical considerations may help advance the science of psychosocial intervention research.     

Imagery and the autonomic nervous system: some methodological issues.

The present paper is concerned with the role played by image content in the mediation of autonomic nervous system (ANS) arousal. The minimum methodological requirements of such studies are described including controls for imaging, image content, and expectancy effects. Studies meeting these requirements are then reviewed. It is concluded that image content can be a significant modifier of ANS arousal and that this property is not restricted to images containing affective, e.g., phobic, content. These conclusions have relevance to research into techniques such as biofeedback, Transcendental Meditation, and progressive relaxation, where imagery many have a profound influence but where it has received little direct empirical attentiol.     

Some epistemological and methodological issues in clinical research

Epistemological realism was postulated as a prolegomenon to clinical research. Observation of single cases must precede any effort for generalization. Observation of men by men is always a field process. In clinical research the experimenter exercises a great amount of power over the subject, thus a naive empirical approach and operationism may be misleading. Clinical theory must be coated in a language different from empirical data and enable the formation of causal chains of events.     

The influence of affect on self-focused attention: Conceptual and methodological issues

A number of investigators have suggested that affective states influence the focus of attention. One recent proposal is that negative moods increase self-focus. This review considers the evidence that bears on this hypothesis. Conceptual issues pertaining to the construct of self-focus are discussed first. Next, the various parameters that influence attentional focus are presented in order to provide a way of organizing the mood/selffocus literature. Studies that have used state measures of mood and self-focus are considered in this context. Methodological limitations of existing studies are discussed and directions for future work provided.     

Validity of the Sheltered Care Environment Scale: conceptual and methodological issues

The Sheltered Care Environment Scale (SCES) was developed primarily to measure social climate as an attribute of a setting. As such, the SCES was designed to maximize differences between facilities and minimize differences among individuals within a setting. However, Smith and Whitbourne (1990) assessed the validity of the SCES as a measure of individual differences in perceptions of a shared environment. Moreover, they redefined the content coverage of 2 of the SCES subscales (Independence and Physical Comfort), to encompass attributes the SCES is not intended to measure. In general, preliminary evidence indicates that the SCES subscales provide reasonably reliable and valid indices of the social climate of group residential facilities.     

Cerebral blood flow during meditative prayer: preliminary findings and methodological issues

Meditative practices typically require several coordinated cognitive activities. This study measured changes in cerebral blood flow during "verbal" based meditation by Franciscan nuns involving the internal repetition of a particular phrase. These results are compared with those we previously described in eight Buddhist meditators who use a type of "visualization" technique. Three experienced practitioners of verbal meditation were injected via i.v. at rest with 260 MBq of Tc-99m HMPAO and scanned 30 min. later on a triple head SPECT camera for 45 min. Following the baseline scan, subjects meditated for approximately 40 min. at which time they were injected with 925 MBq of HMPAO while they continued to meditate for 10 min. more (total of 50 min. of meditation). The injection during meditation was designed not to disturb practice. Subjects were scanned 20 min. later for 30 min. Counts were obtained for regions of interest for major brain structures and normalized to whole-brain blood flow. Compared to baseline, mean verbal meditation scans showed increased blood flow in the prefrontal cortex (7.1%), inferior parietal lobes (6.8%), and inferior frontal lobes (9.0%). There was a strong inverse correlation between the blood flow, change in the prefrontal cortex and in the ipsilateral superior parietal lobe (p<.01). This study on a limited number of subjects demonstrated the feasibility of studying different types of meditation with neuroimaging techniques, suggested that several coordinated cognitive processes occur during meditation, and also raised important methodological issues.     

Online data collection from video game players: methodological issues.

The paper outlines the advantages and disadvantages of using the Internet to collect data concerning both online and offline gamers. Drawing from experience of a number of studies carried out online by the authors and by reviewing the available literature, the authors discuss the main issues concerning data collected from video game players. The paper examines a number of areas, including recruiting and utilizing participants, validity, suitable methods of data collection (i.e., questionnaire studies, online tests, participant observation, online interviews), and ethical issues. It is concluded that online research methods can be a useful way of examining the psychosocial aspects of video game playing.     

Assessing psychological change in adulthood: an overview of methodological issues

This article reviews the current status of methods available for the analysis of psychological change in adulthood and aging. Enormous progress has been made in designing statistical models that can capture key aspects of intraindividual change, as reflected in techniques such as latent growth curve models and multilevel (random-effects) models. However, the rapid evolution of statistical innovations may have obscured the critical importance of addressing rival explanations for statistical outcomes, such as cohort differences or practice effects that could influence estimates of age-related change. Choice of modeling technique and implementation of a specific modeling approach should be grounded in and reflect both the theoretical nature of the developmental phenomenon and the features of the sampling design that selected persons, variables, and contexts for empirical observation.