Mechanisms underlying the self-talk–performance relationship: The effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence and anxiety

ObjectivesThe present study examined the effects of motivational self-talk on self-confidence, anxiety, and task performance in young athletes.MethodsParticipants were 72 tennis players. The experiment was conducted in five sessions: baseline assessment, three training sessions, and final assessment. After the baseline assessment participants were divided and assigned randomly into experimental and control groups. The two groups followed the same training program with the experimental group practicing the use of self-talk. In the last session, the final assessment took place. A forehand drive test was used to evaluate task performance, and the Competitive Anxiety Inventory-2R was used to assess self-confidence and anxiety.ResultsA two-way mixed model MANOVA revealed that task performance improved for the experimental group (p < .01) and remained stable for the control group; self-confidence increased (p < .01) and cognitive anxiety decreased (p < .05) for the experimental group, whereas no changes were observed for the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that changes in task performance were moderately related to changes in self-confidence (p < .05).ConclusionsThe results of the study showed that self-talk can enhance self-confidence and reduce cognitive anxiety. Furthermore, it is suggested that increases in self-confidence can be regarded as a viable function explaining the facilitating effects of self-talk on performance.     

The effects of autonomous difficulty selection on engagement,motivation, and learning in a motion-controlled video game task

This experiment investigated the relationship between motivation, engagement, and learning in a video game task. Previous studies have shown increased autonomy during practice leads to superior retention of motor skills, but it is not clear why this benefit occurs. Some studies suggest this benefit arises from increased motivation during practice; others suggest the benefit arises from better information processing. Sixty novice participants were randomly assigned to a self-controlled group, who chose the progression of difficulty during practice, or to a yoked group, who experienced the same difficulty progression but did not have choice. At the end of practice, participants completed surveys measuring intrinsic motivation and engagement. One week later, participants returned for a series of retention tests at three different difficulty levels. RM-ANCOVA (controlling for pre-test) showed that the self-controlled group had improved retention compared to the yoked group, on average, β = 46.78, 95% CI = [2.68, 90.87], p = 0.04, but this difference was only statistically significant on the moderate difficulty post-test (p = 0.004). The self-controlled group also showed greater intrinsic motivation during practice, t(58) = 2.61, p = 0.01. However, there was no evidence that individual differences in engagement (p = 0.20) or motivation (p = 0.87) were associated with learning, which was the relationship this experiment was powered to detect. These data are inconsistent with strictly motivational accounts of how autonomy benefits learning, instead suggesting the benefits of autonomy may be mediated through other mechanisms. For instance, within the information processing framework, the learning benefits may emerge from learners appropriately adjusting difficulty to maintain an appropriate level of challenge (i.e., maintaining the relationship between task demands and cognitive resources).     

Attention lapses and behavioural microsleeps during tracking,psychomotor vigilance,and dual tasks

This study examined the incidence of attention lapses and microsleeps under contrasting levels of task complexity during three tasks: PVT, 2-D tracking and a dual task combining the two. More attention lapses per participant (median 15 vs. 3; range 1–74 vs. 0–76, p = 0.001), with the greatest increase with time spent-on-task (p = 0.002), were evident on the more cognitively-demanding dual task than on the PVT. Conversely, fewer microsleeps (median 0 vs. 0; range 0–1 vs. 0–18, p = 0.022) occurred during the more complex task compared to the tracking task. An increase in microsleep rate with time spent-on-task (p = 0.035) was evident during the tracking task but not the dual task. These results indicate that the higher cognitive load, associated with an increase in task complexity, increased the likelihood of attention lapses, while a reduction in task complexity increased the likelihood of microsleeps.     

Distributed attentional deficits in chronic methamphetamine abusers: Evidence from the Attentional Network Task (ANT)

ObjectiveThe goal of the present study was to examine distributed attentional functions in long-term but currently abstinent methamphetamine (MA) abusers using a task that measures attentional alertness, orienting, and conflict resolution.MethodsThirty currently abstinent MA abusers (1 month–5 years) and 22 healthy non-substance using adults were administered a multimodal version of the Attentional Network Task (ANT-I). In this task subjects identified the direction of a centrally presented arrow using a key press. Analyses examined the interaction between alerting tones, location cueing and congruency between the target arrows and flanking distractor stimuli.ResultsAll participants were faster when an auditory tone preceded the trial onset (p < 0.001), on trials in which a valid cue preceded the location of the target arrow (p < 0.001), and on congruent trials (i.e., when all display arrows faced in the same direction) (p < 0.001). Of primary interest was the finding that MA abusers were more influenced by the conflict between the peripheral arrows and the central target arrow (p = 0.009). There were also correlations between length of drug sobriety and executive function as well as between drug-induced psychiatric symptoms and alertness.ConclusionsThese results suggest that chronic MA abusers display cognitive deficits that may reflect a specific vulnerability to distraction on a task of executive function. These findings are consistent with other studies that have reported deficits in anterior attentional systems and top-down cognitive control.     

The differences between cerebral dominance patterns in the speed and accuracy of information processing among university students

IntroductionThe subject of cerebral dominance has received great attention by researchers; however, there is a paucity of studies that have examined its relationship to information processing.ObjectiveThe current study aims to reveal the differences between the cerebral dominance patterns (left cerebral dominance, right cerebral dominance, integrated parallel cerebral dominance) in the speed and accuracy of information processing.MethodA sample of (182) volunteers university students, (mean age ± SD, 19.92 ± 2.76 years; range, 18–24 years; 68 male, 114 females). The Human Information processing survey was applied to the participants. Each subject was exposed to two elementary cognitive tasks (Stroop task and Eriksen flanker task). Each task included two experimental conditions: first, the congruent condition that reflects the automatic processing of information; second, the incongruent condition that reflects the controlled processing of information.ResultsThe results of the study revealed that there were no differences between the patterns of cerebral dominance in the speed and accuracy of information processing.ConclusionAlthough the relationship between cerebral dominance and information processing is not significant, we need more studies to examine this relationship in other samples and in other experimental conditions.     

Cyclic variations in sustained human performance

Biological rhythms play a prominent role in the modulation of human physiology and behavior. [Smith, K., Valentino, D., & Arruda, J. (2003). Rhythmic oscillations in the performance of a sustained attention task. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 25, 561-570] suggested that sustained human performance may systematically fluctuate in a cyclic manner with periods of 1.5 min and 5.2 min. The current series of investigations sought to manipulate those periodicities by altering task difficulty, administering caffeine, and testing on a more ecologically valid task. Strong evidence of a 1.5 min periodicity was found across studies. Most participants did not demonstrate the 5.2 min periodicity. Moreover, the 1.5 min periodicity was resistant to task manipulations and appeared in similar levels across conditions in all three experiments. These rhythms may be indicative of an endogenous system that modulates sustained attention in humans. Evidence supporting this idea and implications of the research are discussed.     

Longitudinal examination of objectively-measured physical activity and sedentary time among children with and without significant movement impairments

BackgroundChildren with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) tend to be less active than typically-developing (TD) children. Current evidence, however, is based on cross-sectional and self-reported activity, and little is known about sedentary time among children with significant movement impairments such as DCD. The current study examines the longitudinal patterns of objectively measured physical activity and sedentary time in children with and without possible DCD (pDCD).MethodsData is from a longitudinal nested case-control study, with 103 participants (n = 60 males ages = 12 and 13 at baseline). Participants averaging ⩽16th percentile on the Movement Assessment Battery for Children were considered having significant movement impairments and pDCD (n = 49). All participants wore accelerometers for seven days.ResultsThere were significant main effects for time (Estimate = −23.98, p < .01) and gender (Estimate = 59.86, p < .05) on total physical activity, and time spent being sedentary (Estimate = 15.58, p < .05). Significant main effects for pDCD (Estimate = −5.38, p < .05) and gender (Estimate = 26.89, p < .01), and time by gender interaction (Estimate = −7.50, p < .05) were found for moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Sedentary time did not differ between children with and without DCD.ConclusionsResults suggest children with pDCD engaged in less MVPA compared to TD children. Consistent patterns of MVPA over time, however, suggest that the divergence in MVPA occurs earlier in childhood. Further longitudinal research following a younger cohort is necessary to identify the specific point that differences in MVPA emerge.     

The relationship between visual attention and expertise in sports

ObjectivesGiven the prevalence of misperception and failed perception, particularly in attention-demanding team sports, surprisingly few studies have explored whether experts in team sports differ from other athletes and from non-athletes in their basic attention abilities.MethodIn this study, we examined group differences between experts in team handball (n = 40), athletes from non-team sports (n = 40), and novice athletes (n = 40) using a battery of three attention tasks: a functional field of view task, a multiple-object tracking task, and an inattentional blindness task.ResultsPerformance on the three attention tasks was largely independent, with no significant correlations among the tasks. Team sports experts showed no better performance on the basic attention tasks than did athletes from non-teams sports or novice athletes.ConclusionsThe finding that all basic attention tasks are largely independent provides preliminary support for the idea that attentional breadth, tracking performance, and inattentional blindness are distinct attentional processes. Our results demonstrate that sports expertise effects are unrelated to basic differences in attention—expertise does not appear to produce differences in basic attention and basic differences in attention do not appear to predict eventual expertise. Further experiments could focus on the ways in which more specific attentional strategies and processes contribute to sports performance.     

Effort to reduce postural sway affects both cognitive and motor performances in individuals with Parkinson’s disease

ObjectivesTo assess the effects of voluntarily reducing postural sway on postural control and to determine the attention level needed to do so in healthy adults (n = 16, 65.9 ± 9.7) and persons with PD (n = 25, 65.8 ± 9.5 years). Tasks: quiet and still standing conditions with and without a category task. Cognitive performance, center of pressure (CoP) displacement variability (RMSCoP) and velocity (VCoP) were assessed in the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions.Controls showed larger RMSCoP (AP) and VCoP (AP and ML) during still versus quiet standing (p < 0.01), while the PD group demonstrated no changes. In the PD group, RMSCoP and VCoP (ML) increased in still standing when performed with the cognitive task (p < 0.05). In both groups, cognitive responses decreased in still standing (p < 0.05).In PD, attempting to reduce postural sway did not affect postural control under single task conditions, however ML CoP variability and velocity did increase as a dual task. In older adults, increased displacement and velocity in both AP and ML directions was observed during single, but not dual task conditions. Therefore standing still might not be an adequate postural strategy as it increases the attentional demand and affects motor performance, putting persons with PD at greater risk for falls.     

Response inhibition and avoidance of virtual obstacles during gait in healthy young and older adults

Adjustments of preplanned steps are essential for fall avoidance and require response inhibition. Still, inhibition is rarely tested under conditions resembling daily living. We evaluated the ability of young and older adults to modify ongoing walking movements using a novel precision step inhibition (PSI) task combined with an auditory Stroop task.Healthy young (YA, n = 12) and older (OA, n = 12) adults performed the PSI task at 4 individualized difficulty levels, as a single and dual task (DT). Subjects walked on a treadmill by stepping on virtual stepping stones, unless these changed color during approach, forcing the subjects to avoid them. OA made more failures (40%) on the PSI task than YA (16%), but DT did not affect their performance. In combination with increased rates of omitted Stroop task responses, this indicates a “posture first” strategy. Yet, adding obstacles to the PSI task significantly deteriorated Stroop performance in both groups (the average Stroop composite score decreased by 13% in YA and 27% in OA). Largest deficit of OA was observed in rates of incorrect responses to incongruent Stroop stimuli (OA 35% and YA 12%), which require response inhibition. We concluded that the performance of OA suffered specifically when response inhibition was required.     

Arch structure is associated with unique joint work,relative joint contributions and stiffness during landing

To examine lower extremity joint contributions to a landing task in high-(HA) and low-arched (LA) female athletes by quantifying vertical stiffness, joint work and relative joint contributions to landing.MethodsTwenty healthy female recreational athletes (10 HA and 10 LA) performed five barefoot drop landings from a height of 30 cm. Three-dimensional kinematics (240 Hz) and ground reaction forces (960 Hz) were recorded simultaneously. Vertical stiffness, joint work values and relative joint work values were calculated using Visual 3D and MatLab.ResultsHA athletes had significantly greater vertical stiffness compared to LA athletes (p = 0.013). Though no differences in ankle joint work were observed (p = 0.252), HA athletes had smaller magnitudes of knee (p = 0.046), hip (p = 0.019) and total lower extremity joint work values (p = 0.016) compared to LA athletes. HA athletes had greater relative contributions of the ankle (p = 0.032) and smaller relative contributions of the hip (p = 0.049) compared to LA athletes. No differences in relative contributions of the knee were observed (p = 0.255).ConclusionsThese findings demonstrate that aberrant foot structure is associated with unique contributions of lower extremity joints to load attenuation during landing. These data may provide insight into the unique injury mechanisms associated with arch height in female athletes.     

Is sensory processing an issue for infants with colic?

ObjectivesTo determine the association between sensory functioning, sleep, cry/fuss, and feeding behaviors of infants with colic younger than 4 months of age.MethodsDunn’s Infant/Toddler Sensory Profile™ and a modified Barr Baby Day Diary^© were used to assess 44 breastfed infants with colic under four months of age. Colic was defined according to Wessel’s criteria.ResultsThirty-four of the 44 infants with colic (77%) scored as atypical for sensory processing. Of these, 56% scored atypical for sensory processing on quadrant one (Q1) (Low Registration), with 24%, 65%, and 18% scoring as atypical for sensory processing on Q2 (Sensory seeking), Q3 (Sensory sensitivity), and Q4 (Sensation avoiding), respectively. All infants demonstrating sensation avoiding also scored as Low Threshold. A moderate statistically significant correlation was found between sensation seeking and time spent sleeping (r = 0.31; p = 0.04). No other statistically significant associations between infant behaviors and their sensory functioning were demonstrated. Overall, infants demonstrating atypical sensory responses (in any quadrant) slept significantly more than infants demonstrating typical sensory responses (mean difference = −67.8 min/day; 95% CI = −133.6 to −2.1; p = 0.04).ConclusionVery limited associations between infant behaviors and sensory functioning were demonstrated, suggesting that sensory functioning may not be a significant factor in the multifactorial nature of infant colic. Further well-designed studies using validated tools for infants with colic are required to determine whether associations between infant behaviors and sensory functioning exist.     

Identity formation in juvenile delinquents and clinically referred youth

IntroductionLittle is known about how juvenile delinquents and clinically referred youth handle the key developmental task of identity formation.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to compare identity formation in juvenile delinquent and clinically referred boys to identity formation in boys drawn from the general population.MethodMean scores on identity dimensions and membership to identity statuses in ideological (i.e., education) and interpersonal (i.e., relationship with the best friend) domains were compared across groups of juvenile delinquent boys (n = 30), clinically referred boys (n = 21), and boys drawn from the general adolescent population (n = 30).ResultsJuvenile delinquents, but not clinically referred youth, displayed a weaker identity in both the ideological and interpersonal domain than adolescents from the general population.DiscussionIdentity formation among juvenile delinquents deserves more attention from both researchers and clinicians.     

Adaptation of lower limb movement patterns when maintaining performance in the presence of muscle fatigue

Adaptations in lower limb movement patterns were examined when performance was maintained during a fatiguing repetitive loading task. Forty recreationally active male and female participants performed single-leg hopping to volitional exhaustion at 2.2 Hz to a submaximal height. Spatio-temporal characteristics, mechanical characteristics and variability of the knee-ankle and hip-knee joint couplings were determined at 20% increments during the duration of the hopping task. Variability of the knee-ankle and hip-knee couplings in the flexion/extension axis significantly increased during the loading and propulsion phases during the hopping task (p < 0.05). Performance (vertical stiffness, hopping frequency and height) did not change significantly during the task (p > 0.05), however foot contact time increased progressively during this task (p < 0.05) and maximum hop height significantly decreased after the task (p < 0.05). The observed increase in variability between adjoining lower limb segments demonstrated the ability of the neuromotor system to adapt and maintain performance even with the onset of fatigue. This finding highlights that during the performance of a rapid and repetitive loading activity, performance can be preserved when there is variability in the neuromotor system.     

Self-concept as a risky driver: Mediating the relationship between racing video games and on-road driving violations in a community-based sample

PurposeThe mediating relationship of self-conceptions as a risky driver on self-reported driving violations was examined for players of “drive’em up” and “circuit” racing video games using an Internet survey of automobile and racing club members. Structural equation modelling (SEM) tested Fischer et al. (2012) extended socio-cognitive model on the effects of risk-glorifying media on cognitions and actions.MethodAn Internet questionnaire was developed and relied upon validated instruments or questions derived from previous surveys. Driver club members were asked about: (1) their frequency of video game playing, (2) self-perceptions as a risky driver and (3) self-reported driving violations. SEM was performed to examine mediating effects of racing video game playing on self-reported driving violations.ResultsPlaying “drive‘em up” video games positively predicted risky self-concept (β = .15, t = 2.26), which in turn, positively predicted driving violations (β = .73, t = 8.63), while playing “circuit racing” games did not predict risky self-concept, although risky self-concept did predict driving violations (β = .72, t = 8.67).ConclusionsSelf-concept as a risky driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing and self-reported driving violations for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” video games. These findings are congruent with Fischer and colleagues’ experimental model that self-concept as a reckless driver mediated the relationship between racing video game playing for “drive’em up”, but not for “circuit racing” games and risk-taking behavior in a video of road traffic scenarios.     

Impact of the telephone motivational interviewing on the colorectal cancer screening participation. A randomized controlled study

IntroductionWhile high participation rates ensure the cost-effectiveness of colorectal cancer screening programs, it is well known that postal requests do not achieve acceptable levels of participation.ObjectiveThis randomized controlled study aimed to test the impact of individualized phone counseling to prompt people aged 50 to 74 to take a colorectal cancer test.MethodTwo phone strategies were compared. The first involved computer-aided individualized counseling while the second was based on motivational interviewing. A total of 49,972 people were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) and to the individualized counseling (IC) and motivational interviewing (MI) telephone groups.ResultsA simple call doubled the participation rate per protocol (19.2% > 9.2%; p < .001; r = .131; OR = 2.374), and tripled it when the interview was conducted (30.4% > 9.2%; p < .001; r = .219; OR = 4.321). In an intention-to-treat analysis, the benefit of calling by phone remained even higher than postal requests (10% > 9.2%; p < .01; r = .014; OR = 1.103). However, there was no impact of the type of interview on participation rates.ConclusionThe results are discussed for future research.     

The dopamine D4 receptor gene,birth weight,maternal depression,maternal attention,and the prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months of age: A prospective gene × environment analysis

BackgroundEfforts to understand the developmental pathways for disorganized attachment reflect the importance of disorganized attachment on the prediction of future psychopathology. The inconsistent findings on the prediction of disorganized attachment from the dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) gene, birth weight, and maternal depression as well as the evidence supporting the contribution of early maternal care, suggest the importance of exploring a gene by environment model.MethodsOur sample is from the Maternal Adversity, Vulnerability, and Neurodevelopment project; consisting of 655 mother–child dyads. Birth weight was cross-referenced with normative data to calculate birth weight percentile. Infant DRD4 genotype was obtained with buccal swabs and categorized according to the presence of the 7-repeat allele. Maternal depression was assessed with the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale at the prenatal, 6-, 12-, and 24-month assessments. Maternal attention was measured at 6-months using a videotaped session of a 20-min non-feeding interaction. Attachment was assessed at 36-months using the Strange Situation Procedure.ResultsThe presence of the DRD4 7-repeat allele was associated with less disorganized attachment, β = −1.11, OR = 0.33, p = 0.0008. Maternal looking away frequency showed significant interactions with maternal depression at the prenatal assessment, β = 0.003, OR = 1.003, p = 0.023, and at 24 months, β = 0.004, OR = 1.004, p = 0.021, as at both time points, women suffering from depression and with frequent looking away behavior had an increased probability of disorganized attachment in their child, while those with less looking away behavior had a decreased probability of disorganized attachment in their child at 36 months.ConclusionsOur models support the contribution of biological and multiple environmental factors in the complex prediction of disorganized attachment at 36 months.     

Perceiving red decreases motor performance over time: A pilot study

IntroductionColors may influence motor performance.ObjectiveThe present study aimed to compare the effects of perception of red and green environments on physical (performance and heart rate) and psychological (perceived effort, anxiety and enjoyment) parameters during cycling trials.MethodTen cyclists achieved two identical series of three randomized 7-minute trials on home trainers, during which they were continuously exposed to red, green, and gray environments. Covered distance and heart rate were recorded during each trial, after which participants answered items intended to assess perceived effort, anxiety, and enjoyment experienced during the trial.ResultsResults showed that covered distance (ps ≤ .02) and heart rate (ps ≤ .03) were lower in the red environment than in the gray and green environments. Enjoyment was higher in the green environment than in the red environment (p = .006). The colored environments did not influence perceived effort and anxiety (ps > .05).ConclusionThis study is the first to show that perceiving red is detrimental for motor performance over an extended period of time.     

Comparison of fetal and maternal heart rate measures using electrocardiographic and cardiotocographic methods

PurposeTo determine the reliability at term of: (1) two methods of measuring fetal heart rate (HR), electrocardiographic (ECG, the ‘gold standard’) and cardiotocographic (CTG) and (2) two ECG methods of measuring maternal HR variability over relatively brief periods of time (s–min).MethodsDuring 20 min of rest (N = 39) and during 2 min of auditory stimulation (mother's recorded voice, n = 19), fetal HR data were collected using an ECG (Monica AN24) and a Hewlett-Packard Model 1351A CTG. Simultaneously, maternal HR data (n = 37) were collected using the same ECG device (Monica AN24) and a second stand-alone cardiac monitor (Spacelab 514T cardiac monitor with a QRS detector).ResultsDuring 20 min of maternal rest, correlations of individual fetal CTG with ECG measures of HR at each second were moderate to high (r = .57–.97) for 77% of fetuses. Correlations of HR averaged over fetuses and over each of the 20 min were high (r = .93–.97); fetal HR averaged over 20 min varied between devices from 0.0 to 0.8 bpm. During 2 min of maternal voice presentation, correlations of fetal HR over each second were moderate to high (r = .54–.99) for 95% of fetuses and high (all rs = .99) when averaged across fetuses in 30 s or 2 min epochs. Average fetal HR between devices over the 2 min voice varied from 0.0 to 0.6 bpm. Correlations and/or % agreement between the two ECG methods of measuring maternal HR were high. Average maternal HR over 10 min showed 81% of pairs with a difference of ≤1 bpm; correlations for HR variability measures varied from r = .89 to .97.ConclusionsGood reliability was demonstrated between individual spontaneous and auditory induced fetal CTG and ECG with high correlations when HR data were averaged over fetuses or in 30–120 s epochs. High reliability of maternal HR measures was obtained using two ECG devices.     

Les couples mis à l’épreuve du confinement de la crise Covid

ObjectivesThe COVID-19 pandemic resulted in strict containment. The isolation and anxietyinducing nature of the situation had an impact on the mental health of individuals. Our study examines the intimacy of individuals confined with or without their partners during this period and explores the risk factors and resources available to them.MethodologyWe distributed an online questionnaire during the first lockdown (April 2020). In total, 1985 adults (80.3% female; M = 34.27, SD = 14.96) participated in the study. Several validated scales assessed life context, mental health, substance use (alcohol and cannabis), intolerance of uncertainty and intimacy in the couple. Participants described their experiences through open-ended questions.ResultsOur results indicate that couples who lived in separate households during confinement (n = 453 or 22.8% of our sample) were more depressed, more anxious and more intolerant of uncertainty. Through a thematic analysis, we found that couples who were confined together were more likely to report an improvement in the quality of their emotional and sexual life than couples separated by confinement. However, restriction of available space, reorganisation of work and leisure activities and relationships with children emerged as potential stressors.ConclusionThe intimate partner can be a form of support for stress during containment and supports resilience in a pandemic crisis.