Holocaust victims and perpetrators

The author presents here the results of 12 years of work with a group of psychotherapists in Germany on the subject of the after-effects of the Nazi period on people in psychotherapeutic treatment today. She identifies several typical complexes concerned with issues of identity, loyalty, relationship, authority and aggression. Case examples and references to texts from the Nazi period illustrate the phenomena. The author's concern is that psychotherapists be aware of their own collective (family, ethnic, national) past so that they can fully engage in their work without having to repress painful collective complexes. In training analysis this aspect of the work is especially important so that the following generations of analysts can experience the importance of this level of the collective unconscious.     

Descendants of holocaust victims and perpetrators: Legacies and dialogue

This paper summarizes the themes that often plague the lives of holocaust survivors and which were dealt with in a special roundtable dialogue in Budapest, Hungary, in August 1994. Some history of what happened to survivors after World War II is provided, followed by a summation of a teaching case and the dialogue among invited therapists from Germany, Hungary, and Israel who were either holocaust survivors and/or treating holocaust survivors. The dialogue focused on burdensome and troublesome issues that need to be discussed between and about survivors of both victims and perpetrators in an effort to ultimately enable therapists to treat this population with greater insight, compassion, and efficacy.She was the first president of the International Family Therapy Association, is a past president of the American Psychological Association's Division of Family Psychology, and author of many books and articles on family centered topics. Reprint requests should be sent to Dr. Kaslow     

Working with the Holocaust victims psychologically: Some vital cautions

This article traces the evolution of a major psychological organization's involvement with the Holocaust as a fully justified and legitimate topic of concern and of an ongoing commitment to its study and memory. A number of important cautions and requirements are presented for mental health workers who wish to work in the areas encompassed by the Holocaust, including working therapeutically with Survivors of the Holocaust and their children. The special danger of diminishing or trivializing the Holocaust in the course of writing about aspects or elements of it in psychological articles or writings, as has been the case in other kinds of literature, is brought into focus.     

Optimistic bias among potential perpetrators and victims of youth violence

This study furthers the current understanding of optimistic bias regarding youth violence among high school students. Results from a survey of 387 urban high school students indicate a wide range of predictors of optimistic bias, including experience, demographics, and attitudes. Linkages to other developmental frameworks (personal fable and self-efficacy) suggest future directions for additional research.     

The effects of group memberships of victims and perpetrators in humanly caused disasters on charitable donations to victims

The effects of group memberships of disaster victims and perpetrators on charitable donations were measured. In Study 1 (N = 92), victim group membership was experimentally varied to demonstrate an ingroup bias. In Study 2 (N = 84), a similar bias was demonstrated by varying perpetrator group membership. In Study 3 (N = 182), both victim and perpetrator group memberships were assessed. Perpetrator group membership interacted with victim group membership. Moreover, donations were highest when both victims and perpetrators shared a group membership. These effects were mediated by empathy with the victims, and perceived responsibility of the donor to intervene and aid the victim. Findings show that a salient perpetrator group can be harnessed to encourage helping of disaster victims.     

Emotional adjustment in victims and perpetrators of cyberbullying and traditional bullying

Given the rise in cyberbullying among secondary education students and the importance of certain psychological adjustment variables for the comprehension of this type of violent behavior, both in bullies and in victims, the purpose of the present study was to analyse the emotional adjustment of those involved in cyber- and traditional bullying. The adjustment variables studied were self-concept, perceived stress, loneliness, depressive symptomatology, social anxiety, life satisfaction, and emotional intelligence. Using a sample of 1318 adolescents (47% boys), aged between 11 and 17 years, four groups were established to compare victims and cybervictims (uninvolved students, traditional victims, cybervictims, and traditional–cybervictims). The analysis of variance showed that students who performed the same role (bully or victim) in both contexts (at school and online). In particular, those who suffered traditional or cyberbullying or both conjointly presented lower scores in physical and social self-concept, life satisfaction, emotional clarity, and emotion regulation, as well as higher scores in perceived stress, loneliness, depression, and social anxiety. In bullies—traditional, cyberbullying or both simultaneously—higher scores were observed in perceived stress, loneliness, depressive symptomatology, fear of negative assessment, avoidance, and general social anxiety, and lower scores in the dimensions of academic and family self-concept, life satisfaction, emotional clarity, and emotion regulation. In general, the findings indicate that students who were involved in bullying situations, both victims and bullies, presented more damaged emotional profiles than those who are uninvolved, especially students who performed the same role (bully or victim) in both contexts (at school and online).

     

Bullying types and roles in early adolescence: Latent classes of perpetrators and victims

Although research has suggested that youth involved in bullying as victims, perpetrators, or both are at risk for negative outcomes, less work has investigated different patterns in how youth are involved in bullying with consideration for both the role (i.e., victimization and perpetration) as well as type of behaviors experienced (i.e., cyber, verbal, relational, and physical). Using Latent Class Analysis (LCA), the current study investigated patterns of bullying involvement with a sample of 799 middle school students. Results indicated that five classes of bully-involved youth emerged, including a (a) not involved class, (b) traditional bully victim class, (c) verbal bully-victim class, (d) traditional victim-only class, and (e) cyber bully-victim class. Notably, the bully-involved groups demonstrated significantly more internalizing, externalizing, and school related problems than youth not involved in bullying. Implications regarding identification of youth at risk for social and emotional challenges and intervention planning for bully involved youth are discussed.     

Personal distress and the influence of bystanders on responding to an emergency

Spontaneous helping behavior during an emergency is influenced by the personality of the onlooker and by social situational factors such as the presence of bystanders. Here, we sought to determine the influences of sympathy, an other-oriented response, and personal distress, a self-oriented response, on the effect of bystanders during an emergency. In four experiments, we investigated whether trait levels of sympathy and personal distress predicted responses to an emergency in the presence of bystanders by using behavioral measures and single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. Sympathy and personal distress were expected to be associated with faster responses to an emergency without bystanders present, but only personal distress would predict slower responses to an emergency with bystanders present. The results of a cued reaction time task showed that people who reported higher levels of personal distress and sympathy responded faster to an emergency without bystanders (Exp. 1). In contrast to our predictions, perspective taking but not personal distress was associated with slower reaction times as the number of bystanders increased during an emergency (Exp. 2). However, the decrease in motor corticospinal excitability, a direct physiological measure of action preparation, with the increase in the number of bystanders was solely predicted by personal distress (Exp. 3). Incorporating cognitive load manipulations during the observation of an emergency suggested that personal distress is linked to an effect of bystanders on reflexive responding to an emergency (Exp. 4). Taken together, these results indicate that the presence of bystanders during an emergency reduces action preparation in people with a disposition to experience personal distress.     

Religion,Health, and the Psychology of Religion: How the Research on Religion and Health Helps Us Understand Religion

An increasing replication of studies find a correlation between religious belief and practice and mental and physical health and longevity. This paper discusses some of the implications of this research for the ways in which religion might understood psychologically. Most interpretations of this data focus on the presence of one or more mediating variables. This paper argues that the presence of these mediating factors helps us understand more precisely some of the ways in which religion actually does impact on human life and in what the psychological uniqueness of religion actually consists.     

Religion as a resource for positive youth development: religion, social capital, and moral outcomes

Although existing literature demonstrates that developmental benefits are associated with religion for adolescents, little is understood about the dynamics of this relationship. Drawing on social capital theory, this study tested a conceptual model exploring socially embedded religious influences on moral outcomes. A three-dimensional model of social capital demonstrated how social interaction, trust, and shared vision enable social ties associated with religiousness to influence moral behavior. Structural equation modeling was used with data gathered from 735 urban youths to test a proposed model of the effects of religiousness on moral outcomes. Results suggested that religiously active youths report higher levels of social capital resources and that the influence of adolescent religiousness on moral outcomes was mediated through social capital resources. Suggestions for further research and implications for faith-based youth development organizations are considered.     

The evaluation of perpetrators and victims of peer victimization: An extended crossed‐categorization approach

This research uses a crossed‐categorization design for examining the perception of peer victimization. Using vignettes and an experimental design, perpetrator and victim evaluations of Dutch and Turkish‐Dutch early adolescents were examined in terms of ethnic and gender similarities between (1) respondent and perpetrator, (2) respondent and victim, and (3) perpetrator and victim. When the perpetrator was a double‐ingroup member of the respondent (same ethnicity and same gender), perpetrators were evaluated less negatively and victims less positively than when the perpetrator was a single (gender or ethnicity) or double‐outgroup member. Further, when the victim was a double‐ingroup member of the respondent, perpetrators were evaluated more negatively and victims more positively. No perpetrator–victim crossed‐categorization effects were found for perpetrator and victim evaluations. Perceived norms of intervention in the classroom had the expected main effects but did not moderate the crossed‐categorization effects. The usefulness of a crossed‐categorization approach for examining the perception of negative peer behavior is discussed. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Post-traumatic Stress Disorder among child perpetrators and victims of violence from the Northern Uganda civil war: Findings from the WAYS study

War experiences are known risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and other poor psychosocial outcomes. This study aimed to assess the extent to which perpetrating violence (operationalised as intentional and unintentional killing or mutilation) and being a victim of violence (operationalised as being a victim of violence, e. g., witnessing violence, injuries, torture) predict PTSD and other psychosocial outcomes independently in war-affected youth of Northern Uganda. Data on war experiences, PTSD, psychosocial problems, and socio-demographic characteristics were collected from the youth formerly abducted by the Ugandan Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) at baseline (mean age = 22.39 years; SD = 10.47) and at follow-up (mean age = 23.52 years; SD = 9.28) using self-report questionnaires. On average, the participants spent 3.13 years in captivity (SD = 2.99) and were abducted at 14.14 years of age (SD = 4.21). Regression models were fitted to predict PTSD and psychosocial outcomes from perpetrating violence controlling for being a victim of violence and demographic characteristics. Thirty-seven percent (n = 168) reported killing or being responsible for killing while in rebel captivity. After adjusting for being a victim of violence, perpetrating violence remained a statistically significant predictor of PTSD and poor psychosocial outcomes such as depression, anxiety, somatic complaints, psychotic symptoms, and conduct problems. Among war-affected youth returning from LRA captivity, perpetrating violence may just be as toxic a risk factor for PTSD and other psychosocial outcomes as being a victim of violence. Mental health workers should consider both the effects of being a victim of violence and perpetrating violence in treatment planning.     

A case study of a psychohistorical figure: The influence of the Holocaust on identity

The Holocaust, as well as being a historical event that contributes to an understanding of the shape of current external reality, is also a psychological event that provides themes and metaphors around which personal identity is organized. The history of a child of a Holocaust Survivor who denies any reaction to her father's Survivor status and sees herself as a Jewish American Princess is discussed in terms of how she has unconsciously organized her identity around Holocaust themes that fuse with psychodynamic issues arising out of her family relationships. The issues of psychic numbing with regard to the crystallization of such a psychohistorical identity is also discussed.     

The influence of religion on death anxiety and death acceptance

Parishioners (n?=?130) of an Episcopal church in New York City participated in a survey to explore the relationship between the religiosity, death acceptance, and death anxiety. Among the four different types of religiosity measured by the Rohrbaugh and Jessor scale, theological religiosity was the only one to have a significant effect on death acceptance and death anxiety. Belief in God’s existence (r?=??0.27), and belief in the afterlife (r?=??0.25) were both negatively correlated with death anxiety (p?<?0.01), and positively correlated with death acceptance (respectively, r?=?0.21 and r?=?0.22, p?<?0.05). The effects remained significant even after controlling for a number of demographic variables using multiple regression procedures. Being a woman was the only demographic variable that was significantly correlated with greater anxiety about death. On average, women displayed significantly higher levels of death anxiety (M?=?8.1, SD?=?2.8) than men (M?=?6.2, SD?=?2.9).     

Cracking the Code of Genocide: The Moral Psychology of Rescuers,Bystanders, and Nazis during the Holocaust

What turns neighbors into genocidalists? Why do some stand by, while others risk their lives to help? A narrative analysis of interviews with rescuers, bystanders, and Nazi supporters during World War II focuses attention on self‐image, worldview, and cognitive categorization as critical influences. Rescuers, bystanders, and Nazis demonstrated dramatically different self concepts, yet identity constrained choice for all groups. A critical aspect of identity is relational: the sense of self in relation to others. Worldview, canonical expectations, and idealized cognitive models are critical determinants, with the ethical importance of values emanating not from particular values but from the integration of these values into the speaker's sense of self. Finally, cognitive categorization carries strong ethical overtones. The dehumanization that spurs perpetrators and the sense of moral salience that drives rescuers work through the cognitive classification of “the other.”     

Attitudes to Death during the Holocaust: writings from the ghettos

This study explores perspectives on death from ‘within’ the Holocaust, works written in the midst of suffering which were not tempered by or influenced by survival and its traumas. The focus on thinking during the Holocaust will look at two categories of literature written during the Holocaust, which were hidden or distributed by their authors who did not survive. The first involves secular diarist accounts of life in ghettos and the second is the ‘theological’ writing of religious leaders writing for their followers (Rabbi Shapiro'sEsh Kodesh (The Holy Fire) from the Warsaw Ghetto and Rabbi Tiechtall'sEm Habanim Smecha (The Happy Mother of Children) from Budapest). This literature is studied in relation to a number of key questions: how death was recorded; evidence of religious rituals concerning death; how the rituals helped people to cope with death; and the nature of theological debate at the time.