Effects of day care and maternal teaching on child educability

Two groups of matched mother-child pairs, a day care sample (N = 38) and a home reared sample (N = 38) participated in a study testing mothers for degree of decentred teaching and children for degree of decentred educability. The children were seven years old. Mother and child were tested in separate settings, thus preventing interdependency among scores. The study used a matched-pair design with control of five background variables; age of the child, mother's educational level, mother's occupational status, family SES level, and type of family. The results showed strong positive effects of both day care experience and maternal teaching on child educability. Day care experience improved the educability of children independent of the mother's teaching strategy and gender of the child.     

Traumatized mothers can change their minds about their toddlers: Understanding how a novel use of videofeedback supports positive change of maternal attributions

This study explored the use of a brief experimental intervention that integrates principles of infant-parent psychotherapy, videofeedback, controlled exposure to child distress in the context of parental posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and stimulation of parental reflective functioning (RF). The Clinician Assisted Videofeedback Exposure Session (CAVES) was applied to 32 interpersonal violence-exposed mothers of very young children (8-50 months) with respect to change of maternal perception of her child. While we found no significant reduction over two videotaped assessment visits with a mental health professional, we did find a significant reduction in the degree of negativity of maternal attributions towards her child following the videotaped visit focused on the CAVES (p<.01). Maternal RF, a mother's capacity to think about mental states in herself and her child, accounted for 11% of the variance in reduction of maternal negativity after accounting for baseline levels of negativity. Clinician-assisted videofeedback appears to support emotional self-regulation of mothers with violence-related PTSD. Focusing with a therapist on videofeedback of child separation distress exposes mothers to avoided mental states of helplessness and perceived loss of protection. Negative maternal attributions may mark violent trauma-associated emotion dysregulation and projected self-representations of the maltreated mother.     

The role of mother–child and teacher–child relationship on academic achievement

Robust findings have highlighted the importance of early cognitive abilities for academic performance. However, little is known about the role played by relational variables. In this longitudinal study, we examined children’s relationship with their mothers and teachers as predictors of later academic achievement. We addressed this issue following a group of 45 Italian children (29 boys) from the last year of preschool (mean age: five years and six months) until Year 4 of primary school (mean age: nine years and six months). Results showed that mother–child relationship at age 5 and teacher–child relationship at age 7 correlate with children’s academic achievement at age 9, controlling for early background and verbal abilities. Further analyses showed that teacher–child conflict partially mediates the relationship between early mother–child conflict and children’s later academic achievement. Mechanisms by which relational variables influence learning outcomes are discussed.     

The impact of socioeconomic status on teenage mothers and children who received early intervention

To determine the early school age effects of an intervention program for low SES, black teenage mothers and their term and preterm infants, a subsample of 61 mother-child dyads was assessed when the children were 5 to 8 years of age. The mothers and children were videotaped in a storytelling interaction together and then interviewed and tested. The child interviews included the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence, the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test, the Wide Range Achievement Test, and the Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test. The maternal interviews included a demographic questionnaire, the Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory, the Parenting Stress Index, and the Vocabulary subtest of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. Analyses of variance yielded no intervention effects and no effects of prematurity on any of the child or mother measures. Correlation analysis, however, yielded a number of significant relations between socioeconomic status and child and maternal outcome measures. These findings suggest that the effects of intervention may be short-term for this population, and that low socioeconomic status (SES) may override the effects of early intervention and prematurity by the time children reach school age.     

Adolescent school performance following parental divorce: are there family factors that can enhance success?

Most research on the effects of divorce on children has focused on delineation of specific areas of child maladjustment. A more optimistic approach seeks to identify variables that may mediate negative effects of a stressor, such as parental divorce. The goal of this study was to examine the relationship between one area of child adjustment, school achievement, and family factors which may mediate the negative influence of divorce. The subjects were 71 early adolescents and their recently divorced mothers. The adolescents were divided into low, medium, and high grade achievement groups. Analyses of variance and subsequent Newman-Keuls tests revealed that adolescents with high grade point averages had mothers with a lower level of depression, a higher educational level, less conflict with their ex-spouse, and less intense levels of conflict between mother and adolescent than those in the low grade point average group. A discriminant analysis resulted in a two-variable equation which accounted for 33% of the variance between low and high grade achievers. The two variables were mother's report of conflict between her and her ex-spouse in front of the adolescent and the adolescent's report of the intensity of arguments between him/herself and mother. These results indicated that school performance following divorce is not uniform for all adolescents and that family factors may mediate scholastic achievement problems.     

母亲评价与幼儿数学认知发展的关系

母亲对幼儿数学能力的评价是母亲教育观念的重要组成部分。研究运用问卷法与个别测查法,考察母亲对子女数学能力的评价与幼儿数学认知能力,并通过二者的一致程度揭示母亲评价其子女数学能力的准确性。研究发现,母亲对子女数学能力的评价存在明显的高估倾向;与母亲受教育水平及子女性别等因素不同,子女前期的数学成绩对母亲评价其数学能力的准确性存在显著影响;母亲对子女数学能力评价的准确性与子女数学认知发展水平存在显著的正相关,适当的高估对子女未来数学认知的发展最为有利     

Language development of pre‐school children born to teenage mothers

An Erratum has been published for this article in Infant and Child Development 10(4) 2001, 241. This paper compares the language development of pre‐school children born to teenage (n=22) and comparison mothers (n=20) and examines the extent to which differences in language development can be explained by social background, child and parenting factors. Mothers and children were assessed at home using a range of measures, including a structured interview, the language scales of the Child Development Inventory, the HOME Inventory, and videotaped mother‐child interaction. Results showed that children of teenage mothers perform significantly poorer than children of comparison mothers on measures of expressive language and language comprehension. Subsequent analyses showed that these differences are largely explained by differences in the parenting behaviour of teenage and comparison mothers. Specifically, maternal verbal stimulation and intrusiveness accounted for the relationship between teenage motherhood and children's poorer language comprehension, while maternal intrusiveness and involvement with the child account for the relationship between teenage motherhood and children's poorer expressive language development. These findings highlight the importance of early mother–child interaction for children's language development. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A longitudinal study of mother-child interactions at school entry and social and academic outcomes in middle school

This study examines the association between quality of mother-child interaction assessed at kindergarten entry and children's social and academic outcomes in middle school. The relation between early mother-child interactions and later school performance was examined controlling for demographic variables (e.g., maternal education, family's ethnicity, estimated child IQ, and child's gender) often associated with school outcomes. Ratings of mother-child interaction were assessed for 122 mother-child dyads on the first day of kindergarten. Children's social and academic performance in school (e.g., discipline problems, classroom behavior, and grades) was assessed via teacher observation and grade reports through the eighth grade. Results indicate that positive quality of mother-child interaction accounted for unique variance in social and academic success in early adolescence over and above the contribution of demographic variables. Further, the relation between mother-child patterns and middle school social outcomes varied as a function of ethnicity. These findings support the exploration of process-oriented social variables for predicting later social and academic competence.     

Testing the concept of goodness of fit in early intervention

While the conceptual and clinical utility of the goodness of fit concept has been documented extensively, the number of specific empirical tests of the concept has been limited. In this study, the concept was applied in the conceptualization and analysis of early intervention efforts. The major question examined was the extent to which the goodness of fit of child, maternal, and support variables discriminated good and poor adaptation of the mother as measured by the quality and appropriateness of care giving involvement with her handicapped child. Findings indicated that an index of maternal and child characteristics and measures of maternal locus of control, child temperament, and social support collectively contributed to the correct classification of 77% of mothers in high vs. low involvement groups. Locus of control and the maternal/child index accounted for 25% of the variance in caregiver involvement. The findings illustrate the applicability of the goodness of fit concept and provide support for efforts focused on maximizing the fit of the child, family, and variables in early intervention.     

Early tactile experience of low birth weight children: links to later mental health and social adaptation

The purpose of this study was twofold: to determine (1) the degree to which specific qualities of maternal touch may contribute to the low birth weight infant's emotional and behavioural problems as well as social adaptation, and (2) the relationship between maternal touch and a mother's other caregiving behaviour. The sample included 114 socioculturally diverse infants and their mothers who were videotaped during an infant feeding when the baby was 3 months old. This videotape was analysed to assess dimensions of mother–infant interaction, including maternal touch. Data on perinatal risk and the mother's acceptance versus rejection of the infant were also acquired. Social adaptation and emotional/behavioural problems were measured when the child was 2 years of age. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that maternal touch accounted for 15% of the variance in the likelihood of a child having emotional/behavioural problems at age 2. Children who received more nurturing touch had significantly fewer internalizing problems (such as depression) while children receiving both more frequent touch and harsh touch had more externalizing problems (such as aggressive behaviour). Infants who were less responsive to their caregivers were especially at risk of developing aggressive/destructive behaviour as a result of frequent touch. But less responsive infants also appeared to benefit most from greater use of diverse types of maternal touch, accounting for 6% of the variance in superior adaptive behaviour at age 2. Nurturing touch was the only quality that showed even a modest relationship to other caregiving behaviour, suggesting that touch may play a distinct role in the infant's psychosocial development. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Adverse Effects of Childhood Emotional Maltreatment on Child Behavioral Outcomes

This study used a diverse community sample to test a moderated mediation model, investigating maternal depressive symptoms as a mediator of the relations between maternal emotional maltreatment and child behavior problems; we further tested the moderating effects of observed maternal hostility on these relations. Participants included 64 mother–child dyads (8–11 years old; 59.4% female), in which mothers completed self- and child-report measures and dyads completed a conflict resolution task. Results of a moderated mediation analysis (PROCESS; Hayes, 2013) indicated that the maternal history of emotional maltreatment was associated with increased maternal depressive symptoms, and subsequently with higher child externalizing problems. In addition, these relations were strongest at high levels of observed maternal hostility in the conflict task.     

Concordance Between the Quality of Maternal and Paternal Parenting Behavior Within Couples

There is compelling evidence that the quality of maternal and paternal parenting behavior bears critical importance for child development. Yet, less is known of the degree of similarity between maternal and paternal parenting behavior in families, and especially little is known about the factors that may explain variation in degrees of similarity. This article aims to examine (a) the concordance (similarity) between the quality of mothers’ and fathers’ interactive behavior with their child and (b) the sociodemographic determinants of this concordance. The sample included 74 families (mother, father, and their child). The quality of maternal and paternal interactive behavior was assessed independently, and rated with the Maternal Behavior Q-Sort (mother–infant, 12 months; D. R. Pederson et al., 1990) or the Mutually Responsive Orientation scale (father–toddler, 18 months; N. Aksan et al., 2006). The results indicated that the overall correlation between the quality of mothers’ and fathers’ behavior was moderate. The concordance was greater among higher socioeconomic status families or when interacting with a boy, but did not differ according to the presence or absence of siblings in the family.     

Distressed and nondistressed third- and sixth-grade children's self-reports of life events and impact and concordance with mothers

This study examined the concordance of third- and Sixth-grade distressed and nondistressed children's self-reports of the occurrence and perceived impact of life events that had occurred during the preceding 12 months with their mothers' perceptions. The study also examined whether maternal self-reports of dysphoria affects concordance between mother/child dyads on children's self-reports of occurrence and perceived impact of life events. Eighty-eight mother/child dyads, matched on Children's Depression Inventory scores, grade, sex, race, and school were included. Results indicated that distressed children endorsed more items on the Coddington Life Events Record (LER), and perceived them more negatively, than nondistressed children. Small, but statistically significant concordance rates were found between dyads on the occurrence of life events and the perceived impact of these events: Distressed children and their mothers had more mutually endorsed items than nondistressed children and mothers, and third-grade children had higher concordance rates with their mothers when compared to sixth-grade children. Third-grade children also appeared to commit more errors of commission on the LER. Finally, Maternal distress mediated mother/child concordance. Possible explanations for these results and future research directions are discussed.     

Maternal perception of infant intentionality at 4 and 8 months

This study examines the degree to which mothers perceive infants as intentional and the relations among perception of intentionality, background variables, maternal emotional adjustment, and maternal interactive style. Forty mother-infant dyads were assessed when the infants were 4 months old, and 34 were retested at 8 months. Parent perception of infant intentionality (PPII) was measured via a rating of videotaped segments of infant behavior and an interview. Intentionality scores showed acceptable internal consistency and were positively intercorrelated at each age and across age. The two measures were aggregated to form an index of PPII at each age. Higher educational attainment was associated with lower PPII scores, experience with infants was associated with higher PPII scores, and academic knowledge about child development was not related to PPII. Mothers with more symptoms of anxiety had lower PPII scores, but high maternal separation anxiety was associated with higher PPII scores. Maternal symptoms of depression had a complex relation to PPII scores. Mothers rated as sensitive in mother-infant interactions had higher PPII scores. These variables accounted for 34% of the variance in PPII at 4 months and 49% at 8 months. There were also group differences: Mothers of 8-month-olds had higher PPII scores than mothers of 4-month-olds, mothers of girls had higher PPII scores than mothers of boys, and mothers attributed more intentionality in episodes with girls than in episodes with boys. The results are discussed in relation to mechanisms whereby PPII interacts with aspects of the parent and infant.     

The Relation Between Mothers’ Attitudes Toward Maternal Employment and Social Competence of 36-Month-Olds: The Roles of Maternal Psychological Well-Being and Sensitivity

The relation of mothers’ attitudes on the effects of maternal employment on children, psychological well-being, sensitivity of the mother, and children’s socioemotional development were examined in mothers who worked full time (consistently) and mothers who were unemployed during their children’s early years of growth from 6 months of age. Longitudinal observations of 1,213 mothers and children from age 1 to 36 months from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) Study of Early Child Care were analyzed using structural equation models. Mothers and children benefited when maternal attitudes were consistent with the mothers’ actual employment status. Among consistently employed mothers, those with positive attitudes about employment had better psychological well-being. When mothers who were unemployed, they believed that maternal employment would have positive consequences for their children’s development, they preferred working outside home and they were more likely to show a low level of psychological well-being and poor quality of mother-child relation. Additionally, maternal well-being mediated the relation between a mother’s attitudes and a child’s social competence. For both groups, better psychological well-being of mothers was positively related to better child’s socioemotional outcome. Maternal sensitivity, however, did not mediate the relation between maternal attitudes and child’s social outcomes. The findings shed light on the need for a sensitive measure of characterizing mothers who work versus those who stay at home in order to better understand the effects on a child’s development.     

Predicting the Quality of Mother–Child Reminiscing Surrounding Negative Emotional Events at 42 and 48 Months Old

Researchers have speculated that a number of factors likely predict the quality of reminiscing between preschool children and their mothers. This study was designed to investigate three such factors, including child temperament, maternal personality, and maternal caregiving representations. Seventy mothers and their preschool children were recruited for the study. When the child was 42 months of age, mothers completed measures of her personality and the child's temperament. Mothers also took part in the shortened Parent Development Inventory, which was coded for coherence, pleasure, comfort, and perspective taking. At both 42 and 48 months, the mother–child dyad reminisced about a past event in which the child experienced a negative emotion. These conversations were coded for the amount of maternal elaboration, the discussion of emotion, and dyadic qualities (such as collaboration and intersubjectivity). At 42 months, aspects of maternal personality and child temperament were most associated with reminiscing quality. However, at 48 months, it was primarily maternal representations of relationships that predicted high-quality reminiscing in the dyad.     

Parent Reports and Laboratory Assessments of Child Temperament: A Comparison of Their Associations With Risk for Depression and Externalizing Disorders

Parent reports and laboratory assessments of child temperament traits were compared in terms of their associations with 2 indices of risk for future maladjustment: maternal history of depression and disruptive school behavior. A community sample of 99 pre-school-aged children completed a standardized battery of laboratory tasks designed to tap positive emotionality (PE) and anger. Parent reports of child temperament were collected, and maternal history of depression was assessed using structured clinical interviews. An average of 18.5 months after the initial laboratory assessment, teacher reports of disruptive school behavior were collected. Structural equation models were used to test the association between the 2 assessment approaches of child temperament and maternal history of depression and disruptive school behavior. Laboratory measures and parent reports of anger were equally good at predicting disruptive school behavior, while laboratory measures of PE showed stronger associations with maternal history of depression than parent report.     

Mother–child relationship quality from preschool to adolescence: Variation by maternal education

Using longitudinal data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1088), we examine changes in maternal perception of closeness and conflict in the mother–child relationship from the child's preschool to adolescent years, with attention to variation by maternal education. Analyses using individual growth models show that mother–child closeness increases, while mother–child conflict decreases, from preschool to first grade. From first grade to age 15, mother–child closeness decreases, while mother–child conflict increases, both gradually. The decrease in mother–child conflict from preschool to first grade and the increases in mother–child conflict from first to fifth grade, sixth grade, and age 15 are less steep for mothers with a college degree than for mothers without a college degree. These findings underscore the importance of examining changes in parent–child relationships using longitudinal data across children's developmental stages and their variations by parental social and economic status.     

Maternal stress and perceptions of self-efficacy in socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers: an explicative model

Studies have demonstrated that maternal stress and perceptions of self-efficacy influence a mother's performance, affecting her ability to interact with her child and to understand and answer his needs. The purpose of this study was to evaluate maternal stress and the perception of self-efficacy in the mothers of infants who are cared for in child-care centers and belong to the poorest segment of the Chilean population. To this end, these aspects were studied in 121 low-income, high-social-risk mothers with children between the ages of 4 and 9 months. The final goal was to generate an explicative model of self-efficacy and maternal stress that considered characteristics of the family and the child. The results revealed that family characteristics - especially household size, per capita incomes and mother age - are more relevant for explaining maternal self-efficacy and stress. The findings and implications for practice are discussed.     

The effect of maternal depression on maternal ratings of child behavior

There have been continuing concerns about the extent to which maternal depression may influence maternal reports of child behavior. To examine this issue, a series of structural equation models of the relationships between maternal depression and errors in maternal reports of child behavior was proposed and tested. These models assumed that (a) maternal depression was unrelated to maternal reporting behavior; (b) maternal depression causally influenced maternal reporting accuracy; (c) maternal depression was correlated with reporting accuracy. These models were fitted to data on maternal depression and multipleinformant (mother, teacher, child) reports of conduct disorder and attention deficit behaviors for a birth cohort of 12 and 13yearold New Zealand children. The results of model fitting suggested the presence of small to moderate correlations (@#@ r=+.13 to+.40) between maternal depression and maternal reporting errors, indicating the presence of a tendency for increasing maternal depression to be associated with a tendency for mothers to overreport child behavior problems. However, independently of any effects of maternal depression on maternal reporting errors there was evidence of small but significant associations (r=.10 to .17; p<.05)between maternal depression and child conduct disorder and attention deficit behaviors.This research was funded by grants from the Health Research Council of New Zealand.