An introduction to the Walter/Palya controller and ECBASIC

An overview of the Walter/Palya ECBASIC experiment controller is provided. The hardware, firmware, and underlying design considerations are presented. The controller is a simple printed circuit board microprocessor that interfaces directly to 8 inputs and 40 outputs and directly to any general purpose computer. It can be programmed in a specially written BASIC (ECBASIC) that provides high-level commands for most experimental manipulations. It can function as either a stand-alone computer or a networkable preperipheral processor. It costs about $150.     

Validity of Interpretation: A user validity perspective beyond the test score

This paper introduces the concept of user validity and provides a new perspective on the validity of interpretations from tests. Test interpretation is based on outputs such as test scores, profiles, reports, spreadsheets of multiple candidates' scores, etc. The user validity perspective focuses on the interpretations a test user makes given the purpose of the test and the information provided in the test output. This innovative perspective focuses on how user validity can be extended to content, criterion, and to some extent construct‐related validity. It provides a basis for researching the validity of interpretations and an improved understanding of the appropriateness of different approaches to score interpretation, as well as how to design test outputs and assessments that are pragmatic and optimal.     

Detection of motion onset and offset: reaction time and visual evoked potential analysis

Manual reaction time (RT) and visual evoked potentials (VEP) were measured in motion onset and offset detection tasks. A considerable homology was observed between the temporal structure of RTs and VEP intervals, provided that the change in motion was detected as soon as the VEP signal has reached critical threshold amplitude. Both manual reactions and VEP rise in latency as the velocity of the onset or offset motion decreases and were well approximated by the same negative power function with the exponent close to −2/3. This indicates that motion processing is normalised by subtracting the initial motion vector from ongoing motion. A comparison of the motion onset VEP signals in two different conditions, in one of which the observer was instructed to abstain from the reaction and in the other to indicate as fast as possible the beginning of the motion, contained accurate information about the manual response.     

A portable solid-state stimulus programmer

This paper describes a miniature solid-state timing device particularly useful for presenting repetitive signal sequences in classical conditioning experiments. The device uses transistors, silicon-controlled rectifiers, and four-layer diodes, and is powered by 20-hour rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries. Visual monitoring is provided for the unelapsed ITI and battery charge. Ranges are; ITI, 15 sec. to 5 min., ISI, 0–50 secs., CS duration, 0.5 to 30 sec., US duration, 0.5 to 30 sec. The CS and US durations are adjustable and the onset of the latter may be at any time after the CS onset. Cycling is continuous and automatic; the outputs are in the form of relay closures.     

Signal functions in discriminated avoidance behavior

Four rats were trained to lever press under a discriminated avoidance/escape schedule in which separately signalled safe and warning periods were 100 sec and 32 sec respectively. The auditory and not the visual component of the compound warning signal became associated with the discriminative control of lever pressing. Avoidance behavior also came under temporal control, in that the probability of lever pressing increased as the warning period progressed. Timing began with the onset of the warning signal rather than the offset of the safe signal. However, after the warning signal had been progressively eliminated, timing began with the offset of the safe signal. When neither signal was normally available, the temporal distribution of avoidance behavior changed markedly. Drifts in the temporal distribution of lever pressing occurred throughout the study; these were manipulated for two animals.     

Properties of and Algorithms for Fitting Three-Way Component Models with Offset Terms

Prior to a three-way component analysis of a three-way data set, it is customary to preprocess the data by centering and/or rescaling them. Harshman and Lundy (1984) considered that three-way data actually consist of a three-way model part, which in fact pertains to ratio scale measurements, as well as additive “offset” terms that turn the ratio scale measurements into interval scale measurements. They mentioned that such offset terms might be estimated by incorporating additional components in the model, but discarded this idea in favor of an approach to remove such terms from the model by means of centering. Then estimates for the three-way component model parameters are obtained by analyzing the centered data. In the present paper, the possibility of actually estimating the offset terms is taken up again. First, it is mentioned in which cases such offset terms can be estimated uniquely. Next, procedures are offered for estimating model parameters and offset parameters simultaneously, as well as successively (i.e., providing offset term estimates after the three-way model parameters have been estimated in the traditional way on the basis of the centered data). These procedures are provided for both the CANDECOMP/PARAFAC model and the Tucker3 model extended with offset terms. The successive and the simultaneous approaches for estimating model and offset parameters have been compared on the basis of simulated data. It was found that both procedures perform well when the fitted model captures at least all offset terms actually underlying the data. The simultaneous procedures performed slightly better than the successive procedures. If fewer offset terms are fitted than there are underlying the model, the results are considerably poorer, but in these cases the successive procedures performed better than the simultaneous ones. All in all, it can be concluded that the traditional approach for estimating model parameters can hardly be improved upon, and that offset terms can sufficiently well be estimated by the proposed successive approach, which is a simple extension of the traditional approach. The author is obliged to Jos M.F. ten Berge and Marieke Timmerman for helpful comments on an earlier version of this paper. The author is obliged to Iven van Mechelen for making available the data set used in Section 6.     

Effect of “backward” masker fringe on the detectability of pulsed diotic and dichotic tonal signals

The effects of backward masker “fringe” on performance in homophasic and antiphasic masking conditions were investigated. The results of the study indicate that (1) the presence of a backward masker fringe has only a small effect on performance in homophasic masking conditions; (2) under antiphasic masking conditions, the presence of a backward masker fringe improves performance; (3) similar to the results of studies investigating the effects of forward masker fringe, the magnitude of the improvement in performance increases as the duration of the fringe increases; and (4) the magnitude of the improvement caused by the presence of backward masker fringe is considerably smaller than the magnitude of the improvement caused by the forward masker fringe. It appears, then, that the presence of backward masker fringe may provide a baseline or reference phase similar to that which the forward fringe is presumed to provide. The presence of this reference phase after the offset of the signal apparently makes the phase shift associated with the signal-plus-noise waveform more discernible, thus leading to higher detectability. However, for reasons not yet clear, the presence of a baseline or reference phase after the offset of the signal (backward fringe conditions) does not make the signal-plus-noise phase shift as discernible as do either the presence of that same reference phase before the onset of the signal (forward fringe condition) or the presence of that same reference phase both before signal onset and after signal offset (continuous masker condition).     

The integration of familiarity and recollection information in short-term recognition: modeling speed-accuracy trade-off functions

Dual process models postulate familiarity and recollection as the basis of the recognition process. We investigated the time-course of integration of the two information sources to one recognition judgment in a working memory task. We tested 24 subjects with a response signal variant of the modified Sternberg recognition task (Oberauer, 2001) to isolate the time course of three different probe types indicating different combinations of familiarity and source information. We compared two mathematical models implementing different ways of integrating familiarity and recollection. Within each model, we tested three assumptions about the nature of the familiarity signal, with familiarity having (a) only positive values, indicating similarity of the probe with the memory list, (b) only negative values, indicating novelty, or (c) both positive and negative values. Both models provided good fits to the data. A model combining the outputs of both processes additively (Integration Model) gave an overall better fit to the data than a model based on a continuous familiarity signal and a probabilistic all-or-none recollection process (Dominance Model).     

Saccade latency and warning signals: Stimulus onset,offset, and change as warning events

Two experiments investigated saccade latency to a peripheral target under various warning signal conditions. In Experiment I, the effects of warning stimulus onset, change, and two offset conditions were compared at warning intervals of 0, 100, 300, and 600 msec. Warning stimulus onset, change, and offset were all effective in reducing saccade latency as compared to a no-warning control condition, but warning stimulus offset resulted in shorter saccade latency than onset or change at all warning intervals. Experiment 2 compared onset and offset warning conditions at ?300-, ?250-, ?200-, ?150-, ?100-, ?50-, 0-, and 50-msec intervals. Responses following onset were slower than those following offset at the latter five intervals, while warning onset resulted in slower saccades than no-warning control conditions at ?150-, ?100-, and ?50-msec intervals. These results indicate that the onset of a visual warning signal can have an interfering effect on the programming or execution of a saccade.     

Stimulus specificity in avoidance learning

The present experiments address the issue of stimulus specificity in fear and avoidance learning. First, it was established that light stimuli are effective warning signals (WS) in shuttle avoidance. Then light stimuli were shown to produce conditioned suppression in the conditioned emotional response situation comparable to that produced by noise conditioned stimuli. Finally, the effectiveness of noise onset and noise offset as feedback signals was tested. This was assessed under conditions of immediate and delayed termination of a light WS. Delayed termination of a light WS interfered with avoidance learning and the introduction of noise offset as a feedback signal enhanced it. The only demonstration of stimulus specificity was the failure of noise onset to function as a feedback signal.     

Selectivity in probabilistic causality: Where psychology runs into quantum physics

Given a set of several inputs into a system (e.g., independent variables characterizing stimuli) and a set of several stochastically non-independent outputs (e.g., random variables describing different aspects of responses), how can one determine, for each of the outputs, which of the inputs it is influenced by? The problem has applications ranging from modeling pairwise comparisons to reconstructing mental processing architectures to conjoint testing. A necessary and sufficient condition for a given pattern of selective influences is provided by the Joint Distribution Criterion, according to which the problem of “what influences what” is equivalent to that of the existence of a joint distribution for a certain set of random variables. For inputs and outputs with finite sets of values this criterion translates into a test of consistency of a certain system of linear equations and inequalities (Linear Feasibility Test) which can be performed by means of linear programming. While new in the behavioral context, both this test and the Joint Distribution Criterion on which it is based have been previously proposed in quantum physics, in dealing with generalizations of Bell inequalities for the quantum entanglement problem. The parallels between this problem and that of selective influences in behavioral sciences are established by observing that noncommuting measurements in quantum physics are mutually exclusive and can therefore be treated as different levels of one and the same factor.     

Binaural interaction in backward masking

The binaural auditory system exhibits certain advantages over the monaural system when detecting a tonal signal in a background of masking noise. These advantages have been described in detail and are referred to as masking-level differences, or MLDs. It has been demonstrated, for example, that performance in detecting a tonal signal that has been reversed in phase at one ear relative to the other ear is about 15–17 dB better than detection of the same signal in-phase at the two ears when masked by moderately intense masking noise that is in-phase at the two ears. The explanations for this phenomenon fall into two general categories, and both types of explanations are based upon the interaction of the tonal signal and masker when they are added together. In the present paper, data are presented which indicate that an MLD of at least 4–5 dB can be obtained in a binaural masking experiment in which the offset of the tonal signal precedes the onset of the noise masker.     

Coalitional Capacities and Environmental Strategies to Prevent Underage Drinking

Coalitions are the most common platform for implementing community-level environmental strategies (ES), such as media, policy, or enforcement for substance use prevention. The current study examines the associations between two types of coalition capacity (general and innovation-specific) and ES implementation efforts and outputs within 14 intervention communities over a three-year period. Efforts refer to the amount of energy exerted to implement an ES while outputs refer to the materials produced through these efforts. Quantitative measures of capacity were provided by coalition key informants and expert-raters. Additionally, Training and Technical Assistance (TTA) provided proactively to improve the implementation of ES was also examined. Greater general capacity, as rated by a coalition informant, was associated with more ES policy effort. Both expert-rated general and innovation-specific capacity, however, were associated with greater ES outputs. Study results also found that community coalitions that endorsed weaker mobilization, structure and task leadership, (measures of general capacity), utilized more TTA compared to those who perceived their coalition as having greater capacity. Moreover, communities that utilized more TTA resources reported a greater number of successful policy changes. The study supports the need to consider both general and innovation-specific capacity for ES implementation and offers promising preliminary findings regarding the role of TTA for improving coalitions’ capacity to facilitate policy change.     

Spectral, intensive, and temporal factors influencing overshoot

Threshold was measured for a 10-msec, 4.0-kHz signal presented near the onset or in the temporal centre of a 400-msec noise masker. Overshoot, the difference (in dB) between these two thresholds, was seen only for masker bandwidths wider than a critical band. The threshold near masker onset, and hence overshoot, could be reduced by the presence of an additional noise that was presented continuously or gated on and off prior to masker onset. The spectral, intensive, and temporal properties of this effect were studied. When the additional noise was continuous and either bandpass filtered with a variable bandwidth or notch filtered with a variable notchwidth, the results indicated that energy both near and remote from the signal frequency contributed to the reduction in overshoot. The effect of this additional noise was highly dependent upon its relative level. When the additional noise was 400 msec in duration and the delay between its offset and the onset of the masker was varied, overshoot “recovered” to its maximum value within about 50 msec. Finally, as the duration of the additional noise was varied from 3 to 400 msec while the time between its offset and masker onset was fixed, the reduction in overshoot was virtually complete for durations of about 25-50 msec. The results are consistent with the notion that overshoot at least partly reflects peripheral adaptation, and that this adaptation is not restricted to the signal frequency channel but, rather, extends in both directions over several channels.     

How to be proactive about interference: lessons from animal memory

Processes of proactive interference were explored using the pigeon as a model system of memory. This study shows that proactive interference extends back in time at least 16 trials (and as many minutes), revealing a continuum of interference and providing a framework for studying memory. Pigeons were tested in a delayed same/different task containing trial-unique pictures. On interference trials, sample pictures from previous trials reappeared as test pictures on different trials. Proactive-interference functions showed greatest interference from the most recent trial and with the longer of two delays (10 s vs. 1 s). These interference functions are accounted for by a time-estimation model based on signal detection theory. The model predicts that accuracy at test is determined solely by the ratio of the elapsed time since the offset of the current-trial sample to the elapsed time since the offset of the interfering sample. Implications for comparing memory of different species and different types of memory (e.g., familiarity vs. recollection) are discussed.     

Inhibition of the glabella reflex by monaural and binaural stimulation

The human eyeblink, elicited by a tap to the glabella, can be inhibited if a relatively weak acoustic signal precedes the tap by approximately 100 msec. The work reported here was designed to explore the surprising fact that more inhibition occurs when the acoustic prestimulation is presented monaurally than when it is presented binaurally. The present studies revealed that (a) given equally loud binaural inputs, a reduction of about 40 dB(A) in one of them is sufficient to produce inhibition comparable to that produced by a monaural signal, (b) the difference between nonaural and binaural inhibition remains constant as the intensity of prestimulation is varied, and (c) the simultaneous offset of a tone in one ear and onset of a tone in the other ear produces more inhibition than either monaural offest or onset alone. These findings suggest that the specific attributes of a given acoustic signal make independent contributions to the inhibition produced by that signal.     

四字谜问题解决中原型启发的时间抵消与位置效应

根据顿悟的原型启发理论,通过两个实验考察原型启发的时间抵消和位置效应。实验1采用2（字谜类型）×2（原型呈现时间）混合设计,结果发现：松组块字谜的正确率显著高于紧组块字谜;原型谜面消失的正确率显著大于谜面存在的正确率。实验2采用2（原型位置）×2（字谜类型）×2（原型呈现时间）混合设计,结果不仅证明了实验1,且原型位置、字谜类型、原型呈现时间的交互作用显著,原型在靶字谜之前时,紧组块字谜上谜面消失的正确率显著大于谜面存在的正确率;原型在靶字谜之后时,松组块字谜上谜面消失的正确率显著大于谜面存在的正确率。表明字谜顿悟问题解决中存在原型的时间抵消和位置效应,二者连同任务难度共同影响问题解决。     

Examining the time course of facilitation and inhibition with simultaneous onset and offset cues

The experiment conducted examined the effect of simultaneously presented onset and offset cues on the orienting of attention in the visual field. Subjects were presented with a display that consisted of four placeholder boxes around a central fixation point. An onset and an offset cue appeared simultaneously in two of the locations, and the other two locations provided a neutral baseline condition. Reaction times were measured in a simple target detection task with stimulus-onset asynchronies (SOAs) that ranged from 100 ms to 1,000 ms. As expected, the onset cue produced early facilitation and later occurring inhibition of return (IOR). The offset cue produced significant inhibition at all but the earliest SOA. These results suggest that simultaneously presented onset and offset cues both capture attention, but that attention is rapidly disengaged from the location of the offset cue, resulting in earlier occurring IOR. For the onset cues, attention is allocated for a longer period of time, producing the typical pattern of early facilitation and later occurring IOR. The differing time course of attention at each location may reflect separate facilitatory and inhibitory processes, and the priority given to the onset of a stimulus by the attentional system.