How Not to Apply to College

Samples of letters written by college students are excerpted to demonstrate the deterioration of students' writing skills. The relative unimportance many college students and graduates attach to the art of writing letters of inquiry is emphasized. A checklist is provided to assist students in preparing letters requesting information from colleges and universities.     

How Mathematics Isn't Logic

If logical truth is necessitated by sheer syntax, mathematics is categorially unlike logic even if all mathematics derives from definitions and logical principles. This contrast gets obscured by the plausibility of the Synonym Substitution Principle implicit in conceptions of analyticity: synonym substitution cannot alter sentence sense. The Principle obviously fails with intercepting : nonuniform term substitution in logical sentences. 'Televisions are televisions' and 'TVs are televisions' neither sound alike nor are used interchangeably. Interception synonymy gets assumed because logical sentences and their synomic interceptions have identical factual content, which seems to exhaust semantic content. However, intercepting alters syntax by eliminating term recurrence, the sole strictly syntactic means of ensuring necessary term coextension, and thereby syntactically securing necessary truth. Interceptional necessity is lexical, a notational artifact. The denial of interception nonsynonymy and the disregard of term recurrence in logic link with many misconceptions about propositions, logical form, conventions, and metalanguages. Mathematics is distinct from logic: its truth is not syntactic; it is transmitted by synonym substitution; term recurrence has no essential role. The '=' of mathematics is an objectual relation between numbers; the '=' of logic marks a syntactic relation of coreferring terms.     

中国逻辑如何影响中国传统数学(英文)

中国传统数学在中国古代逻辑特别是墨家逻辑的影响下,形成了自己的推理体系,即:以"以类合类"为基本方法,以"类"和"分类"为核心成分,以"推类"为主导推理形式。正是由于这一推理体系,使得中国传统数学在相当长的时期内保持世界的领先地位。因此,我们可以得出这样的结论:中国逻辑不是阻碍了中国传统数学进一步发展的因素,换句话说,中国传统数学所蕴含的逻辑方法并不是阻碍其进一步发展的原因。     

How Mathematics Propels the Development of Physical Knowledge

Three studies examined whether mathematics can propel the development of physical understanding. In Experiment 1, 10-year-olds solved balance scale problems that used easy-to-count discrete quantities or hard-to-count continuous quantities. Discrete quantities led to age typical performances. Continuous quantities caused performances like those of 5-year-olds. In Experiment 2, 11-year-olds solved problems with feedback. They were encouraged to use math or words to justify their answers. Children who used math developed an understanding superior to most adults, whereas children who used words did not. In Experiment 3, 9-year-olds solved problems with or without prompts to use math. Children encouraged to use math exhibited greater qualitative understanding, even though they were unable to discover metric proportions. The results indicate it is possible to design symbolic experiences to propel the development of physical understanding, thereby relating developmental psychology to instructional theory.     

Two Examples of How the History of Mathematics Can Inform Theology

In several of his writings, Bernard Lonergan emphasized the study of mathematics and especially its history as being important for philosophy and theology. In this article, I offer two examples of how the history of mathematics might inform theology. My first example explores the disparities between Euclid's Elements and Aquinas' Summa Contra Gentiles. My second example applies the idea of incompleteness to the “good and necessary consequence” clause of the Westminster Confession of Faith.     

Children Apply Principles of Physical Ownership to Ideas

Adults apply ownership not only to objects but also to ideas. But do people come to apply principles of ownership to ideas because of being taught about intellectual property and copyrights? Here, we investigate whether children apply rules from physical property ownership to ideas. Studies 1a and 1b show that children (6–8 years old) determine ownership of both objects and ideas based on who first establishes possession of the object or idea. Study 2 shows that children use another principle of object ownership, control of permission—an ability to restrict others’ access to the entity in question—to determine idea ownership. In Study 3 , we replicate these findings with different idea types. In Study 4 , we determine that children will not apply ownership to every entity, demonstrating that they do not apply ownership to a common word. Taken together, these results suggest that, like adults, children as young as 6 years old apply rules from ownership not only to objects but to ideas as well.     

Policing and the Focal Concerns Framework: Exploring How its Core Components Apply to the Discretionary Enforcement Decisions of Police Officers

This study used a qualitative design to investigate police officer decision-making processes within the context of the focal concerns framework. A sample of 25 metropolitan police officers were interviewed to explore how the constructs of blameworthiness, protecting the community, and practical considerations manifest themselves in a policing context and how those considerations affect officers’ enforcement decisions. The results indicate that police officers share the same broad focal concerns as judges, but the way these concerns manifest themselves is sometimes different in a policing context as compared to a judicial sentencing context. The results, theoretical implications, and directions for future research are presented.     

继发性的高血压线索来自于基本的临床检查

继发性高血压病因的检出和针对病因的治疗,不仅可以提高高血压的治愈率和控制率,有利于保护靶器官,还可以极大程度地减少医疗资源的浪费.基本的临床检查,如血、尿常规,血浆电解质,血糖,血脂,血尿酸和血清肌酐,可以为继发性高血压的诊断提供重要的线索.     

继发性的高血压线索来自于基本的临床检查

继发性高血压病因的检出和针对病因的治疗,不仅可以提高高血压的治愈率和控制率,有利于保护靶器官,还可以极大程度地减少医疗资源的浪费。基本的临床检查,如血、尿常规,血浆电解质,血糖,血脂,血尿酸和血清肌酐,可以为继发性高血压的诊断提供重要的线索。     

How Teachers Link Ideas in Mathematics Instruction Using Speech and Gesture: A Corpus Analysis

This research investigated how teachers express links between ideas in speech, gestures, and other modalities in middle school mathematics instruction. We videotaped 18 lessons (3 from each of 6 teachers), and within each, we identified linking episodes—segments of discourse in which the teacher connected mathematical ideas. For each link, we identified the modalities teachers used to express linked ideas and coded whether the content was new or review. Teachers communicated most links multimodally, typically using speech and gestures. Teachers’ gestures included depictive gestures that simulated actions and perceptual states, and pointing gestures that grounded utterances in the physical environment. Compared to links about new material, teachers were less likely to express links about review material multimodally, especially when that material had been mentioned previously. Moreover, teachers gestured at a higher rate in links about new material. Gestures are an integral part of teachers’ communication during mathematics instruction.     

应用分子靶向治疗的时机选择

分子靶向药物的出现显示出肿瘤治疗传统模式的重要进展。与传统放疗、化疗相比,分子靶向治疗因其特异性高、不良反应轻微,在恶性肿瘤个体化治疗中扮演重要角色。十五年来,分子靶向药物的出现,给肿瘤的治疗模式带来重大改变,也给临床医生带来新的挑战。准确把握分子靶向药物应用时机,获得最大临床效果,已成为肿瘤治疗领域关注热点。本文就非小细胞肺癌、消化系统肿瘤、乳腺癌、肾癌治疗中分子靶向药物如何选择应用时机进行阐述。     

How to Read Wittgenstein

"How to Read Wittgenstein" is a discussion of some misinterpretations that arise when Ludwig Wittgenstein's later works are read, not in their historical context, but as though they were written for a generation of philosophers influenced by G.E. Moore and ordinary language philosophy. The criticisms are directed primarily at Oswald Hanfling's "Critical Notice" in Philosophical Investigations 19:2 (April, 1996).