Health decision making and behavior: The role of affect‐laden constructs

A common criticism of social cognitive models predicting health behavior is their exclusion of affect—an important component of individual‐level decision processes for behavior change. Yet the role of affect, and its interaction with cognitions, is complex. We provide an overview of affect and pathways through which it is proposed to influence outcomes. Then, we discuss several common social cognitive models of health behavior change. Next, we highlight specific affect‐laden constructs (those that incorporate affective and cognitive components) related to health behavior change. We aim to provide clarity on terminology and measurement of the affect‐laden constructs and evidence associating them with health behavior. Finally, we discuss strategies for incorporating these constructs within popular cognitive‐based theories and provide suggestions for future work.     

Fitting the mind to the world: face adaptation and attractiveness aftereffects

Average faces are attractive, but what is average depends on experience. We examined the effect of brief exposure to consistent facial distortions on what looks normal (average) and what looks attractive. Adaptation to a consistent distortion shifted what looked most normal, and what looked most attractive, toward that distortion. These normality and attractiveness aftereffects occurred when the adapting and test faces differed in orientation by 90° (+45° vs. −45°), suggesting adaptation of high-level neurons whose coding is not strictly retino- topic. Our results suggest that perceptual adaptation can rapidly recalibrate people's preferences to fit the faces they see. The results also suggest that average faces are attractive because of their central location in a distribution of faces (i.e., prototypicality), rather than because of any intrinsic appeal of particular physical characteristics. Recalibration of preferences may have important consequences, given the powerful effects of perceived attractiveness on person perception, mate choice, social interactions, and social outcomes for individuals.     

Finding meaning in us: The role of meaning in life in romantic relationships

The present research tested a model of relationship functioning that incorporates meaning in life (MIL), proposing that MIL plays an important role in individuals’ motivations and perceived quality of romantic relationships. Study 1 employed a weekly diary methodology (N = 121 individuals in romantic relationships) and found that both within- and between-person relationship MIL are associated with internalized motivational states (i.e. intrinsic motivation, harmonious passion) and relationship quality (i.e. satisfaction, commitment). Study 2 was a dyadic study that examined both members of romantic couples (N = 238 dyads). Results found that both one’s own and one’s partner’s MIL predict motivation and relationship quality. Further, we also found evidence of a hierarchical model of MIL, such that relationship-specific experiences of MIL mediate associations between general MIL and relationship motivation and quality. Taken together, this research provides consistent and compelling evidence regarding the importance of MIL in romantic relationships.     

The making of meaning: comments on Hofstee and Ten Berge

Hofstee and Ten Berge (2004/this issue) outline a method of scale transformation that places scores on a common absolute scale. This contrasts with traditional relative methods of transformation, which involve scaling in relation to a sample mean. Their primary intention seems to be to produce a scale that is intrinsically meaningful. This issue of scale meaning is discussed in some detail, including reference to an alternate approach to absolute scaling offered by Cohen, Cohen, Aiken, and West (1999). Ultimately, neither approach to absolute scaling seems completely satisfactory as a resolution to this problem. It is suggested that the lack of meaning inherent to many psychosocial measures is a natural product of traditional aggregative practices in scale development and may be invulnerable to statistical correction.     

The politics of making meaning: discourse analysis of a 'postmodern' interview

Both constructivist and constructionist models of therapy seek to produce new meanings with clients and families. Critics have pointed out that these therapies may neglect to consider the political and embedded nature of meaning making. This paper describes a discourse analysis of a construction/uctivist interview. Three interlocking conversational strategies employed by the interviewer are identified: exteriority, the disciplining of narrative and locality . These strategies are examined in the light of their effects on the unfolding narrative in the session, both in a productive and a restrictive sense. The function of therapy theory and techniques in subjugating client narratives as well as providing processes for constructing new meaning is discussed.     

The meaning of Eysenck's personality constructs and scales for Zimbabwean male students

Two studies of the utility of Eysenckian scale constructs for male African university students are reported. One confirms the previous findings that the EPQ, with some item changes, remains substantially reliable across cultures. The second was based on a larger item pool and shows that: (i) the integrity of the Neuroticism factor is confirmed, though fear-of-success items might usefully be added for African students; (ii) Sociability is the most robust component of Extraversion for this group, though the relationship with Impulsivity remains, contrary to predictions based on knowledge of African socialization; (iii) a factor of Restraint, Responsibility and Seriousness-of-purpose emerges, which could be interpreted as the converse of Impulsivity, or as a reflection of African values or motivation in this particular item pool; (iv) Motivation-for-success items group factorially, though their endorsement may reflect Social Desirability. These findings are interpreted both as a confirmation of Eysenck's personality theory for educated Africans, and as indicating the need for further exploration of scales which take the local behavioural referents of the Eysenckian factors into account.     

Dichoptic reading: The role of meaning in binocular rivalry

These experiments sought to determine whether meaning influences the predominance of one eye during binocular rivalry. In Experiment 1, observers tried to read meaningful text under conditions in which different text streams were viewed by the two eyes, a situation mimicking the classic dichotic listening paradigm. Dichoptic reading proved impossible even when the text streams were printed in different fonts or when one eye received a 5-sec advantage. Under non-rivalry conditions, the observers were able to read text presented at twice the rate used for dichoptic testing, indicating that cognitive overload does not limit performance under conditions of rivalry. In Experiment 2, observers were required to detect repeated presentations of a probe target within a string of characters presented to one eye. Although this task was easily performed under monocular viewing conditions, it proved difficult when the two eyes received dissimilar character strings. This was true regardless of whether the probed eye viewed nonsense strings, real words, or meaningful text. In a condition designed to encourage semantic processing of one eye’s view, the observers were required to detect animal names as well as to detect the probe target. Performance remained inferior to that measured under monocular conditions. Even the observer’s own name proved insufficient to influence the predominance of one eye under conditions of dichoptic stimulation. When two text strings were physically superimposed and viewed monocularly, essentially no probes were detected, indicating that the failure to see some probes during rivalry reflects a limitation unique to dichoptic viewing. These results contradict theories attributing binocular rivalry to an attentional process that operates on monocular inputs that have received refined analysis. This conclusion may be limited to rival stimuli whose meaning is defined linguistically, not structurally.     

Self-realisation and meaning making in the face of adversity: a eudaimonic approach to human resilience

This article considers a eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being built on the integration of developmental, existential and humanistic formulations as well as distant writings of Aristotle. Eudaimonia emphasizes meaning-making, self-realisation and growth, quality connections to others, self-knowledge, managing life and marching to one's own drummer. These qualities may be of particular importance in the confrontation with significant life challenges. Prior formulations of resilience are reviewed to underscore the unique features of a eudaimonic approach. Empirical findings on meaning making and self-realisation are then reviewed to document the capacity of some to maintain high well-being in the face of socioeconomic inequality, the challenges of aging, and in dealing with specific challenges (child abuse, cancer, loss of spouse). Moreover, those who sustain or deepen their well-being as they deal with adversity, show better health profiles, thereby underscoring broader benefits of eudaimonia. How meaning is made and personal capacities realised in the confrontation with challenge is revealed by narrative accounts. Thus, the latter half of the article illustrates human resilience in action via the personal stories of three individuals (Mark Mathabane, Ben Mattlin and Victor Frankl) who endured unimaginable hardships, but prevailed and grew in the face of it. The essential roles of strong social ties and the capacity to derive meaning and realise personal growth in grappling with adversity are unmistakable in all three cases.     

Fitting the child's mind to the world: adaptive norm-based coding of facial identity in 8-year-olds

In adults, facial identity is coded by opponent processes relative to an average face or norm, as evidenced by the face identity aftereffect: adapting to a face biases perception towards the opposite identity, so that a previously neutral face (e.g. the average) resembles the identity of the computationally opposite face. We investigated whether children as young as 8 use adaptive norm-based coding to represent faces, a question of interest because 8-year-olds are less accurate than adults at recognizing faces and do not show the adult neural markers of face expertise. We found comparable face identity aftereffects in 8-year-olds and adults: perception of identity in both groups shifted in the direction predicted by norm-based coding. This finding suggests that, by 8 years of age, the adaptive computational mechanisms used to code facial identity are like those of adults and hence that children's immaturities in face processing arise from another source.     

The fruits of irony: gaining insight into how we make meaning of the world

Many philosophers of education emphasise the impossibility to really ‘solve’ philosophical—and with that, educational—problems these days. Philosophers have been trying to give philosophy a new, constructive turn in the face of this insolvability. This paper focuses on irony-based approaches that try to exploit the very uncertainty of philosophical issues to further philosophical understanding. We will first briefly discuss a few highlights of historical uses of irony as a philosophical tool. Then we concentrate on two different interpretations of irony, formulated by Bransen and Rorty, that aim at gaining insight into how we make meaning of the world, while at the same time recognising that such an understanding would be impossible. After discussing some problematic aspects of these interpretations a third interpretation of irony is developed, based on a third view of the nature of meaning-making. Following these three interpretations, we will discuss their philosophical merits and the different kinds of insight they can produce for philosophy of education.     

The making of the group therapist: The role of experiential learning

The purpose of this paper is to review the necessary components of a comprehensive group therapy program. The balancing between the didactic and the experiential portions, and an analysis of the selection criteria, along with the rationale for a particular sequencing of elements in the curriculum, are discussed. A line between supervision and personal therapy is drawn. The author describes the milieu necessary for a successful training program to evolve and makes suggestions for improvements. The various experiential aspects of training are presented and critically evaluated. The training situation is examined from the point of view of the faculty, the trainee and the patients involved. The author marshalls evidence indicating that personal group psychotherapy in a patient group is the preferred form for most trainees for the experiential part of the program. The paper concludes that the sharing and cohesiveness of training philosophies and methods by the faculty is a prerequisite to the success of any training program.     

Seeing double: the role of meaning in alphanumeric-colour synaesthesia

When PD, an alphanumeric-colour synaesthete, is shown black digits or letters, each grapheme elicits a highly specific colour, called a "photism" (e.g., a 2 induces green, a Z induces brown). Previous experiments showed that photisms interfere with video-colour naming when the photism colour and the video colour are incongruent. Here we used coloured ambiguous graphemes that could be interpreted as either digits or letters depending on context (e.g., an ambiguous grapheme was interpreted as a 2 if presented within a block of digit trials, but as a Z if presented within a block of letter trials). Ambiguous graphemes were presented in video colours that were either congruent or incongruent with PD's photisms. Crucially, what was a congruent trial in one context was an incongruent trial in the other context. PD's pattern of response times indicated that identical graphemes could induce differently coloured photisms depending on their interpretation. This suggests that the meaning of graphemes ultimately determines their synaesthetic colour.     

The meaning of the act: reflections on the expressive force of reproductive decision making and policies

Prenatal and preconceptual testing and screening programs provide information on the basis of which people can choose to avoid the birth of children likely to face disabilities. Some disabilities advocates have objected to such programs and to the decisions made within them, on the grounds that measures taken to avoid the birth of children with disabilities have an "expressive force" that conveys messages disrespectful to people with disabilities. Assessing such a claim requires careful attention to general considerations relating meaning, intention, and social practices; it has only begun to receive such attention. Building on work by Allen Buchanan, who has challenged this claim, I further consider the disabilities advocates' objection, ultimately concluding that it is misplaced; neither individual actions nor general practices of this type necessarily express disrespectful messages.     

Meaning making in middle childhood: an exploration of the meaning of ethnic identity

Social identity, including identification with one's ethnic group, is an important aspect of social development. However, little is known about the subjective meaning associated with social group memberships, particularly during middle childhood. Using second- and fourth-graders responses to an open-ended question, we explored the meaning of ethnic identity with a sample of Chinese, Dominican, Russian, White, and Black American children. Analyses revealed that middle childhood is an active period for meaning making as children described the ethnic identity to include ideas such as language, physical appearance, pride, relative social position, and culture. While there were few differences in the ethnic identity meaning responses of second- and fourth-grade children, the meaning of ethnic identity varied considerably across the ethnic groups underscoring how the unique features and experiences of different ethnic groups shapes the subjective meaning of ethnic identity. These findings align with prior research on the meaning of ethnic identity among adults and adolescents and offer insight for future research regarding the conceptualization and measurement of the meaning of social group membership.     

The role of meaning in contextual cueing: Evidence from chess expertise

In contextual cueing, the position of a search target is learned over repeated exposures to a visual display. The strength of this effect varies across stimulus types. For example, real-world scene contexts give rise to larger search benefits than contexts composed of letters or shapes. We investigated whether such differences in learning can be at least partially explained by the degree of semantic meaning associated with a context independently of the nature of the visual information available (which also varies across stimulus types). Chess boards served as the learning context as their meaningfulness depends on the observer's knowledge of the game. In Experiment 1, boards depicted actual game play, and search benefits for repeated boards were 4 times greater for experts than for novices. In Experiment 2, search benefits among experts were halved when less meaningful randomly generated boards were used. Thus, stimulus meaningfulness independently contributes to learning context–target associations.