Intercultural Understanding through Intergroup Dialogue between Japanese and Chinese University Students

This study had two purposes: (1) to develop university classes in which students can participate in intercultural dialogue by exchanging letters focusing on a topic about everyday norms implicit in each culture, and (2) to examine how students develop their intercultural understanding through participating in these classes. Twenty-two Japanese and six Chinese university students (each group in their own country) participated in three class sessions. At the beginning of the first class, students were given a dialogue theme that focused on cultural differences. The selected theme was mobile phone use while riding on public transportation, as this practice is prohibited in Tokyo but not in Beijing. Students discussed their opinions in small groups, wrote questions to their counterparts in the other country, and then reflected on and discussed the answers received. Analysis of the Japanese students’ written reflections showed that their understanding of different cultural values and beliefs changed from one based only on a Japanese cultural perspective to one that respected the relativity of cultural norms. The results suggested that the arousal of negative emotions when students are exposed to the perspectives of other cultures is closely related to their understanding of cultural relativity.     

USING MINIAUTOBIOGRAPHICAL NARRATION IN APPLIED PSYCHOLOGY TO PERSONALIZE COURSE CONTENT AND IMPROVE CONCEPTUAL APPLICATION

­In the present investigation, I implemented a series of brief, written, autobiographical assignments, each associated with material from one of 12 different chapters covered throughout an introductory course in applied psychology. In completing each assignment, students described and applied psychological principles to their past and present life experiences. Students completing the autobiographical writing assignments demonstrated greater comprehension and application of course concepts than students exposed to traditional didactics alone. Students' anecdotal comments combined with narrative excerpts from selected assignments in offering additional evidence of the effectiveness of miniautobiographical narration as a constructivist pedagogical tool.     

Is the three-term contingency trial a predictor of effective instruction?

Two experiments are reported which test the effect of increased three-term contingency trials on students' correct and incorrect math responses. Experiment 1 included two junior high school students in need of special instruction in mathematics while in Experiment 2 two other students with similar instructional needs from the same classroom were studied. In the first experiment the increased rate of presentation (3 times the baseline rate) was done without regard to whether the antecedent teacher presentations to the student were presented vocally or in written form; in the second experiment, the rates of presentation were systematically rotated across written and vocal presentations. The dependent variables were rate per minute of correct and incorrect responses of students (vocal or written). The experiments used designs incorporating features of the multiple baseline (Students A and B) and reversal (Students B, C, and D). The data showed that increasing the number of three-term trials increased correct rates while incorrect rates remained relatively low. The second experiment replicated these findings with two other students and found that the treatment effect occurred independently with vocal and written antecedents when each was isolated. The results warrant further research to test whether or not rates of presentation of three-term contingency trials are predictors of effective instruction.     

Can Psychology Ethics Effectively Be Integrated into Introductory Psychology?

This study evaluated the integration of psychology ethics into an introductory psychology course. Students in two general psychology sections were exposed to an infusion of psychology ethics in teaching, research, and clinical practice, whereas students in two sections were exposed to traditional course content. Students completed a pre and post-test assessment including a psychology ethics questionnaire and open-ended responses to three ethics case studies. Students in the ethics group displayed a statistically significant increase in scores on both measures from pre to post-test. However, students in the traditional group showed no improvement in scores.     

Questioning as an instructional method: Does it affect learning from lectures?

What can be done to improve student engagement and learning in college lectures? One approach is to ask questions that students answer during the lecture. In two lab experiments, students received a 25‐slide PowerPoint lecture in educational psychology that included four inserted multiple‐choice questions (questioning group) or four corresponding statements (control group). Students in the questioning group used a personal response system (PRS), in which they responded to questions using a hand‐held remote control, saw a graph displaying the percentage of students voting for each answer, and heard the teacher provide an explanation for the correct answer. Students in the control group received the corresponding slide as a statement and heard the teacher provide an explanation. The questioning group outperformed the control group on a retention test in Experiment 1 (d = 1.23) and on a transfer test in Experiment 2 (d = 0.74), but not on other tests. The results are consistent with a generative theory of learning, and encourage the appropriate use of questioning as an instructional method. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Academic responses and attitudes engendered by a programmed course in child development

Both a small course section and a large course section were taught with methods that involved breaking material down into weekly units that had to be mastered by students as indicated by weekly tests. Attendance at lectures was voluntary and students were not tested on lecture material. In a system in which a student could receive only an A or an F for a course grade, less than 2% of the students receiving credit failed to master all material and received Fs. Students in the large course performed better on weekly tests and received fewer Fs than their counterparts in the small course, even though they rated their experience less favorably. Within the large course, the methods of tutorial interview, group discussion, and written assignment were compared in terms of their effectiveness in preparing students for weekly tests. Tutorials and written assignments were superior to group discussions in this regard. Students rated the effectiveness and enjoyability of these three methods in the reverse order from their actual effectiveness for test preparation. Some consequences of lack of congruity between attitude measures and performance measures were discussed.     

Toward More Effective Stakeholder Dialogue: Applying Theories of Negotiation to Policy and Program Evaluation1

Borrowing from the negotiation literature, we tested 2 factors that might improve stakeholder dialogue in program and policy evaluation. Undergraduate stakeholders (61 pairs) engaged in dialogue about their universities' alcohol policies. Pairs were randomly assigned to levels of accountability audience and dialogue structure. The audience for the videotaped dialogue was described as holding either (a) views about the policy similar to the participant's, consistent across audience members (homogeneous), or (b) mixed views, on both sides of the issue (heterogeneous). Pairs approached the dialogue with either (a) problem‐solving goals or (b) no particular strategy. Dyads accountable to a heterogeneous audience and given problem‐solving instructions exhibited the most effective dialogue. Accountability to a heterogeneous audience facilitated satisfaction with and optimism about dialogue. Accountability to homogeneous audiences and adopting no particular strategy yielded the least positive perceptions of dialogue. Implications for stakeholder dialogue, and for the role of social psychology in evaluation are discussed.     

Assessing the Clinical Competence of Psychology Students Through Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs): Student and Staff Views

Objective Structured Clinical Examinations (OSCEs) are a well‐known, reliable, and valid assessment method used across the healthcare sector. In the present study, we applied OSCEs in three units within professional postgraduate psychology courses, with the broad aims of identifying staff and student perceptions of the assessment. At the conclusion of each OSCE, staff and students completed a feedback questionnaire that contained both scaled and open‐ended questions. Results suggest that clinical psychology OSCEs can be stressful for students, but are also well regarded. Both staff and students felt that the OSCEs were realistic, valid, and aligned well with professional practice. Students reported differences in the way in which they prepared for the OSCEs compared with a written exam or other form of assessment, while staff noted that models of OSCE development must be flexible, to adequately assess the objectives of individual units. Further, because they can be a costly exercise, OSCEs need to be applied judiciously within the tertiary sector.     

Students' Views on the Value of Psychological Research: A Contribution to Indigenising Psychology in Botswana

The goal of the study was to explore the value that psychology students accredit to psychological research in a country like Botswana where psychology is a relatively new discipline. Forty-five undergraduate students belonging to the first cohort of psychology students at the University of Botswana participated in the study (males = 7, females = 38, age range 18–23 years). Data were obtained from student essays and evaluated with Qualitative Content Analysis. Students were of the view that psychological research should (a) increase knowledge to better understand human beings and the world (epistemological value); (b) create awareness about psychology within society so as to to assist society in combating societal problems (societal value); (c) enhance individuals' understanding of psychology so as to to accept psychology (individual value); and (d) up-date psychological theories to ensure their applicability in present times (theoretical value). Considering students' views could play an important role in indigenising psychology in Botswana.     

Influence of trait anxiety on perception of humor

Previous research and theory suggest that a person's anxiety level plays a functional role in determining his responsiveness to and appreciation of humor. Based upon the theoretical view that humor serves to dissipate anxiety, it was proposed that highly anxious individuals would respond more favourably to a therapist's use of humor than low trait-anxiety individuals. To test the hypothesis 87 undergraduate students in psychology were classified according to their measured level of trait anxiety (high or low, on the Spielberger Trait-Anxiety Inventory). Subjects evaluated a therapist who used humor in a written therapist-client dialogue. Results were contrary to prediction; an inverse relation between anxiety and appreciation of humor obtained.     

Consultant Problem Understanding as a Function of Training in Interviewing to Promote Accessible Reasoning

The focus of this article is on how consultants develop a “high-quality” understanding of a teacher's presenting problem situation from interviewing them. A longitudinal quasi-experimental study was conducted with 10 graduate students enrolled on an accredited training program in school psychology in which interviewing and problem-solving skills were taught and practiced. Eight individuals who had been selected for the same training program but who had not enrolled acted as a comparison group to measure possible practice effects. The results indicated that following training consultant use of statements designed to reveal their reasoning to the teacher significantly increased, and was highly correlated with the quality of their subsequent written analyses of the teacher's problem situation.     

Two instructional designs for dialogic citizenship education: An effect study

Background Despite the renewed interest in citizenship education, relatively little is known about effective ways to realize citizenship education in the classroom. In the literature on citizenship education, dialogue is considered to be a crucial element. However, there is very little, if any, empirical research into the different ways to stimulate dialogue. Aim The main aim of this study is to arrive at an understanding of how citizenship education can be integrated in history classes. The focus is on the effect of a dialogic approach to citizenship education on students' ability to justify an opinion on moral issues. Sample Four hundred and eighty‐two students in the eighth grade of secondary education. Methods Two curriculum units for dialogic citizenship education were developed and implemented. The two curriculum units differed in the balance between group work and whole‐class teaching. Students' ability to justify an opinion was assessed by means of short essays written by students on a moral issue. The effectiveness of both curriculum units was compared with regular history classes. Results Students who participated in the lessons for dialogic citizenship education were able to justify their opinion better than students who participated in regular history lessons. The results further show a positive effect of the amount of group work involved. Conclusion The results of this study indicate that a dialogic approach to citizenship education as an integral part of history classes helps students to form a more profound opinion about moral issues in the subject matter. In addition, group work seems to be a more effective method to implement dialogue in the classroom than whole‐class teaching.     

Does sexist language reflect personal characteristics?

We investigated whether or not sexist language in written form can be linked to traditional views of sex roles, assertiveness, psychological androgyny, Christian beliefs, or sexist language in oral form. In Experiment 1, undergraduates were given an essay designed to test written sexist language and several pencil-and-paper personality inventories. No relationship between sexist language and interpersonal assertiveness or psychological androgyny was found. However, those who avoided sexist language were less traditional in their sex role perceptions scored lower on a scale of Christian beliefs. In Experient 2, the method of measuring sexist language was expanded by using three essay responses and a brief oral interview. Those who used sexist language in written form were more likely than others to use sexist language in oral form on some responses. Interpretations and implications of the findings are discussed.     

Note regarding the word 'behavior' in glossaries of introductory textbooks, dictionaries, and encyclopedias devoted to psychology

Glossaries of introductory textbooks in psychology, biology, and animal behavior were surveyed to find whether they induded the word 'behavior'. In addition to texts, encyclopedias and dictionaries devoted to the study of behavior were also surveyed. Of the 138 tests sampled across all three fields, only 38 (27%) included the term 'behavior' in their glossaries. Of the 15 encyclopedias and dictionaries surveyed, only 5 defined 'behavior'. To assess whether the term 'behavior' has disappeared from textbook glossaries or whether it has usually been absent, we sampled 23 introductory psychology texts written from 1886 to 1958. Only two texts contained glossaries, and the word 'behavior' was defined in both. An informal survey was conducted of students enrolled in introductory classes in psychology, biology, and animal behavior to provide data on the consistency of definitions. Students were asked to "define the word 'behavior'." Analysis indicated the definition was dependent upon the course. We suggest that future introductory textbook authors and editors of psychology-based dictionaries and encyclopedias include 'behavior' in their glossaries.     

Learning From Service: The Effect of Helping on Helpers' Social Dominance Orientation

Helping behavior can affect the power dynamics between social groups ( Nadler, 2002 ). The present research investigated whether helping also affects one's views of those power dynamics, as indexed by social dominance orientation (SDO) scores ( Pratto, Sidanius, Stallworth, & Malle, 1994 ). College students in an introductory psychology course were randomly assigned to a helping (service learning) group or a control group. Students in the helping group participated in 18 hr of community service over 9 weeks, and showed a significant decrease in SDO, compared to the control group. Empathy mediated the relationship between helping and SDO. The pedagogical implications of service learning are also discussed, as are the potential moderating roles of helping type and contact.     

Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: sadder but wiser?

How are humans' subjective judgments of contingencies related to objective contingencies? Work in social psychology and human contingency learning predicts that the greater the frequency of desired outcomes, the greater people's judgments of contingency will be. Second, the learned helplessness theory of depression provides both a strong and a weak prediction concerning the linkage between subjective and objective contingencies. According to the strong prediction, depressed individuals should underestimate the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes relative to the objective degree of contingency. According to the weak prediction, depressed individuals merely should judge that there is a smaller degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes than nondepressed individuals should. In addition, the present investigation deduced a new strong prediction from the helplessness theory: Nondepressed individuals should overestimate the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes relative to the objective degree of contingency. In the experiments, depressed and nondepressed students were present with one of a series of problems varying in the actual degree of contingency. In each problem, subjects estimated the degree of contingency between their responses (pressing or not pressing a button) and an environmental outcome (onset of a green light). Performance on a behavioral task and estimates of the conditional probability of green light onset associated with the two response alternatives provided additional measures for assessing beliefs about contingencies. Depressed students' judgments of contingency were surprisingly accurate in all four experiments. Nondepressed students, on the other hand, overestimated the degree of contingency between their responses and outcomes when noncontingent outcomes were frequent and/or desired and underestimated the degree of contingency when contingent outcomes were undesired. Thus, predictions derived from social psychology concerning the linkage between subjective and objective contingencies were confirmed for nondepressed students but not for depressed students. Further, the predictions of helplessness theory received, at best, minimal support. The learned helplessness and self-serving motivational bias hypotheses are evaluated as explanations of the results. In addition, parallels are drawn between the present results and phenomena in cognitive psychology, social psychology, and animal learning. Finally, implications for cognitive illusions in normal people, appetitive helplessness, judgment of contingency between stimuli, and learning theory are discussed.     

Helping students acquire belief-inconsistent and belief-consistent science facts: Comparisons between individual and dyad study using elaborative interrogatin,self-selected study and repetitious-reading

One hundred and eighty four grade 6 and 7 students processed 32 factual statements in one of two studies reported here. Half the statements were consistent with the students' prior knowledge, whereas the remaining facts were inconsistent with it. Students studied the facts alone, or with a partner, by: (1) answering 'why' questions; (2) reading the information for understanding; or (3) selecting their own method of study. Recall (free and cued) and recognition measures (immediate, 30-day, and 60-day) were used to assess learning (immediate, 30-day, and 60-day). Instructions to use elaborative interrogation produced superior learning gains relative to instructing students to read information for understanding or to select their own study strategy. Overall, there were no performance differneces as a function of individual versus dyad study. The quality of the elaborative interrogation study response affected learning. When students generated or listened to a partner's response that clarified the target facts, learning of that information was superior to when students generated or listened to other types of study responses.     

IS THERE A FUTURE FOR THE DIALOGUE?

The title question was raised by Philip Hefner in an editorial in the March 2007 issue of Zygon, and answered in various ways in sixteen guest editorials in the June, September, and December 2007 issues. In this article, after defining some pertinent concepts, I comment on these essays. I review critical statements made by the guest editorialists and survey their proposals for further dialogue topics. I conclude with my own views on the future of the dialogue and the role of Zygon therein.     

Use of Photovoice in Processing Race-Based Topics in a Multicultural Counseling Course

This phenomenological study assessed master-level students’ experiences of using photovoice, a creative learning activity, in a race-based multicultural counseling course. Students were asked to engage in weekly written reflections regarding a course-related photographic image, with the goal of more deeply processing cognitive and affective reactions to the course. Data analyzed included focus groups, student written responses, and photos. Findings indicated use of photovoice as a means for processing cognitions, which allowed students to deepen learning by extending a racialized lens outside of the classroom. Students also indicated use of the tool to process emotional reactions at various stages of the course, allowing learners to creatively and visually express feelings as they surfaced.