Gordon Allport on the definition of personality

Abstract.— Allport objects to operational definitions of personality because, by equating personality with observable phenomena, they reduce personality to something subjective. His view on the reality of phenomena is, however, but one of several possible. The plea for an operational definition of personality may equally well be based on the phenomenological assumption that to exist means, for man, to appear in the world for someone, and what appears for someone does not have to be thought of as existing in that someone's mind. To be studied empirically, personality must be knowable, and it must be defined in terms of how it is known. Postulating an internal structure behind or within the phenomena known as personality, adds no meaning to the concept.     

Sexual sadism in sexual offenders: An elusive diagnosis

The present review considers the various conceptual and operational definitions of sexual sadism as this has been diagnosed among sexual offenders. The most persistent problem this review identified concerns the criteria of the fusion of sexual arousal with one or more of the various features of the offenders' actions or of the victims' responses. Not only do the definitions of sadism vary considerably in what it is that is thought to provoke sexual arousal, the operationalization of these definitions also varies. Furthermore, none of the operational definitions appears to satisfactorily or reliably measure sadism. In face of these discouraging observations we recommend abandoning the present diagnostic criteria and shifting to a dimensional approach to defining sadism.     

Introduction to the Special Issue on the Role of Personality Assessment in Consulting to Organizations

This special issue aims to advance the integration of personality assessment across applied contexts. Personality assessment is an integral part of clinical and organizational case conceptualizations, intervention planning, and change efforts. Yet, as the present historical account will illustrate, the literatures in relation to personality assessment have developed rather independently. The articles in this special issue highlight the importance of organizational personality assessment as relates to how (a) academics vs. practitioners look at standards for test selection (Furnham), (b) the intended use of tests (selection vs. employee development) impacts the criteria used to establish assessment tool validity (Moyle & Hackston), (c) personality models developed in social and personality psychology can be applied in organizational contexts (Shorey & Chaffin), (d) assessments are modified to more accurately assess operational definitions of constructs (Belwalker & Tobacyk), (e) perception and knowledge about personality of others can be assessed as an ability (Mayer, Lortie, Panter & Caruso), and (f) performance-based techniques can be used in organizational personality assessment to curtail faking and socially desirable responding (Harms, Krasikova & Luthans). The present introduction highlights the important contributions of these articles, individually and as a body, in advancing the integration and application of personality assessment in organizational contexts.     

Empathy present and future

The empathy concept has central significance for social and personality psychology and in many other domains, including neuroscience, clinical/abnormal psychology, and the health professions. However, the current diversity in conceptual and operational definitions, and the promiscuous use of the term “empathy,” threaten the ability of researchers to advance the field. The present article provides a quantitative review and conceptual analysis of empathy definitions and usages by examining 393 studies published between 2001 and 2013, and 96 studies published in 2017. We document the prevalence and diversity of definitions, as well as inconsistencies between conceptual definitions and measurements employed. We discuss ways to refine the conceptualization and operationalization of the empathy construct, including for many purposes, bypassing the term empathy in favor of lower-level construct labels that more precisely describe what is actually being measured. In many cases we see no added theoretical or empirical value in applying the term empathy.     

Up with this I shall not put: 10 reasons why I disagree with Branch and Vollmer on behavior used as a count noun

Branch and Vollmer (2004) argue that use of the word behavior as a count noun is ungrammatical and, worse, mischaracterizes and ultimately degrades the concept of the operant. In this paper I argue that use of behavior as a count noun is a reflection of its grammatical status as a hybrid of count and mass noun. I show that such usage is widespread across colloquial, referential, and scientific documents including the writings of major figures in behavior analysis (most notably B. F. Skinner), books describing its applications, and its major journals. Finally, I argue against the assertion that such usage degrades the concept of the operant, at least in any meaningful way, and argue instead that employing eccentric definitions for ordinary words and using arcane terms to describe everyday human behavior risks diminishing the influence of behavior analysis on human affairs.     

Towards consensus in conceptualizing and operationalizing physical activity maintenance

Recognized challenges in promoting long-term physical activity maintenance may be due to inconsistencies in the conceptualization and operationalization of behavior maintenance terminology in physical activity research. The overall goal of this paper is to propose a framework and agenda for the development of a common set of terms, definitions, and measures for physical activity maintenance concepts that can be widely tested and evaluated. To initiate this effort, this paper (1) provides an overview of conceptual and operational definitions of physical activity maintenance used in the empirical literature, (2) evaluates whether behavior maintenance terms used in addiction science can be translated to physical activity, (3) recommends research directions for developing consensus definitions of physical activity maintenance, and (4) proposes a conceptual model of physical activity maintenance with inflection points that require operational definitions to be decided upon through consensus efforts in the field. Consensus over the conceptualization and operationalization of physical activity maintenance is needed to draw conclusions regarding which policies and programs are best able to promote long-term behavior change.     

COR V2: teaching observational research with multimedia courseware.

Courseware for Observational Research (COR Version 2) is an interactive multimedia program designed to teach the foundation of the scientific method: systematic observation. COR uses digital video with interactive coding to teach basic concepts, such as creating precise operational definitions; using frequency, interval, and duration coding; developing sampling strategies; and analyzing and interpreting data. Through lessons, a case study, and laboratory exercises, it gradually scaffolds students from teacher-directed learning into self-directed learning. The newest addition to COR is a case study in which students work collaboratively, using their own observations to make recommendations about a child's disruptive behavior in an after-school program. Evaluations of the lessons showed that classes using COR received better grades on their field observations than did those using methods that are more traditional. Students' confidence and knowledge increased as they moved through each section of the program.     

Operational Psychology Post-9/11: A Decade of Evolution

Operational psychology continues to expand at a rapid rate. Over the course of the last decade, it has emerged from relative obscurity and developed into an exciting, and somewhat controversial, professional subdiscipline within psychology. As the community of operational psychologists has increased and matured, it has reached a tipping point, creating the need for practice guidelines, training programs, and a greater emphasis on operationally relevant empirical research. The starting point for these developments is an integrative definition of operational psychology. In this article, we revisit previous definitions, relevant research literature, and recent developments in this specialty. We propose a definition that emphasizes consultation to an operational decision maker concerning issues of national security and defense.     

COR V2: Teaching observational research with multimedia courseware

Courseware for Observational Research (COR Version 2) is an interactive multimedia program designed to teach the foundation of the scientific method: systematic observation. COR uses digital video with interactive coding to teach basic concepts, such as creating precise operational definitions; using frequency, interval, and duration coding; developing sampling strategies; and analyzing and interpreting data. Through lessons, a case study, and laboratory exercises, it gradually scaffolds students from teacher-directed learning into self-directed learning. The newest addition to COR is a case study in which students work collaboratively, using their own observations to make recommendations about a child’s disruptive behavior in an after-school program. Evaluations of the lessons showed that classes using COR received better grades on their field observations than did those using methods that are more traditional. Students’ confidence and knowledge increased as they moved through each section of the program.     

Is defining life pointless? Operational definitions at the frontiers of biology

Despite numerous and increasing attempts to define what life is, there is no consensus on necessary and sufficient conditions for life. Accordingly, some scholars have questioned the value of definitions of life and encouraged scientists and philosophers alike to discard the project. As an alternative to this pessimistic conclusion, we argue that critically rethinking the nature and uses of definitions can provide new insights into the epistemic roles of definitions of life for different research practices. This paper examines the possible contributions of definitions of life in scientific domains where such definitions are used most (e.g., Synthetic Biology, Origins of Life, Alife, and Astrobiology). Rather than as classificatory tools for demarcation of natural kinds, we highlight the pragmatic utility of what we call operational definitions that serve as theoretical and epistemic tools in scientific practice. In particular, we examine contexts where definitions integrate criteria for life into theoretical models that involve or enable observable operations. We show how these definitions of life play important roles in influencing research agendas and evaluating results, and we argue that to discard the project of defining life is neither sufficiently motivated, nor possible without dismissing important theoretical and practical research.     

Perceptible goals matter, but let's not overdo it!

F. Mechsner's (2004) Imaginative experiments underscored the importance of perceptual-cognitive factors in motor control. However, his account of motor planning is in need of precise operational definitions of its key concepts; the importance of neuromuscular constraints and coordinative stability is not acknowledged in his view on motor execution; and his account of motor learning is challenged by both empirical and anecdotal observations.     

What is personality? Two myths and a definition

This article addresses the longstanding problem that the field of personality psychology remains in need of a consensus formulation of its core subject matter, that of the nature of “personality” itself. Part 1 of the article presents some reminders about the traditional pre-empirical status of concepts in science. Part 2 introduces and calls into question two widely accepted but nonetheless questionable propositions about the nature of personality: (a) that the term refers to an underlying causal entity within a person, and (b) that the study of personality is the study of the whole person. Part 3 presents a definition of “personality”, discussion elaborating and clarifying this definition, and an explication of the ways in which it differs from previous definitions. Part 4 discusses some benefits that accrue both to having a consensus definition in general, and to acceptance of the present definition in particular.     

Fundamental Issues in Defining Consultation

Understanding and articulating one's definition of consultation is essential for successful consultation to occur. Early definitions presented the consultant primarily as a one-an-one content expert. Today there are many definitions ranging from the original one-on-one content expert to system-wide operations. Several different definitions are reviewed and presented for consideration, The main issues that surround the operational definitions of consultation are also included. The final conclusion is that consultants define consultation depending on their work setting, educational backgrounds, goals, and conceptual models.     

心理治疗中的脱落

脱落是指在心理咨询与治疗中, 来访者由于种种原因在导致他前来寻求帮助的心理困扰或问题尚未解决之前就终止治疗的现象。研究者对脱落概念内涵的理解比较一致, 但脱落的操作性定义存在多种且各有利弊。脱落在临床治疗中普遍存在; 脱落率在跨研究间的结果差异很大, 并受到脱落的操作性定义和研究设计类型的重要影响。传统的静态的变量在预测脱落时存在明显局限, 治疗同盟等治疗过程预测变量近年来得到更多重视, 并丰富了我们对来访者脱落的深入理解。为减少脱落, 研究者建议为来访者提供治疗前准备, 对治疗过程中的关键变量进行评估并根据具体情况采用合适的干预策略。未来研究需要完善脱落的操作性定义, 更多地在自然治疗设置下进行研究, 进一步深化脱落的预测变量研究, 并关注治疗外重要事件及文化背景对脱落的影响。     

完美主义及其认知-行为治疗研究

完美主义是一种深刻影响人格的心理特征,与心理病理学现象有极为密切的联系。完美主义已经引起了心理界的关注。从完美主义的定义出发,提出完美主义认知和行为特征,总结了完美主义的评估方法及完美主义与心理障碍的关系研究,最后对完美主义的认知-行为治疗的方法和步骤进行了阐述。     

心理学研究中社会阶层的操作化界定及其衍生问题

个体的社会阶层反映了其所掌控的客观社会资源(即客观社会阶层)和其主观上所感知到的自身社会地位(即主观社会阶层)的水平。收入(或财产)、职业、受教育程度是研究中常用来反映客观社会阶层的操作化指标。而主观社会阶层的操作化界定既包括对主观阶层进行问卷测量,也包括对其加以实验操纵。心理学研究要基于研究目的以及要考察的具体效应与机制对不同的操作化界定加以取舍,有时也要综合兼顾多种操作化方式。通过选取典型群体来代表不同阶层,这种做法宜慎重采用。同时研究的信效度问题有必要更多加以重视。未来研究应加强关注阶层认同偏差与阶层纵向流动等基础问题,以及因取样偏差而带来的阶层效应被简化的现象,并结合跨文化视角分析不同文化下社会阶层的内涵差异。     

Classifying personality disorder according to severity

Current systems for classifying personality disorder according to specific categories are unsatisfactory because they do not take account of wide variations in levels of personality disturbance and associated impairment. We review previous attempts to classify personality disorder according to severity and place these findings in the context of work exploring the severity of other mental disorders. On the basis of these findings, we propose a new system for classifying personality-related problems based on severity defined by the extent of personality disturbance, the level of social dysfunctioning, and the impact of the disorder for individuals and society. We recognize that studies using these definitions will need piloting and testing in field trials, but believe that this simplified approach to classifying personality disorder would encourage greater use by clinicians and assist those involved in planning services for people with personality disorder.     

Hume’s definitions of ‘Cause’: Without idealizations,within the bounds of science

Interpreters have found it exceedingly difficult to understand how Hume could be right in claiming that his two definitions of ‘cause’ are essentially the same. As J. A. Robinson points out, the definitions do not even seem to be extensionally equivalent. Don Garrett offers an influential solution to this interpretative problem, one that attributes to Hume the reliance on an ideal observer. I argue that the theoretical need for an ideal observer stems from an idealized concept of definition, which many interpreters, including Garrett, attribute to Hume. I argue that this idealized concept of definition indeed demands an unlimited or infinite ideal observer. But there is substantial textual evidence indicating that Hume disallows the employment of idealizations in general in the sciences. Thus Hume would reject the idealized concept of definition and its corresponding ideal observer. I then put forward an expert-relative reading of Hume’s definitions of ‘cause’, which also renders both definitions extensionally equivalent. On the expert-relative reading, the meaning of ‘cause’ changes with better observations and experiments, but it also allows Humean definitions to play important roles within our normative practices. Finally, I consider and reject Henry Allison’s argument that idealized definitions and their corresponding infinite minds are necessary for expert reflection on the limitations of current science.     

Psychotherapeutischer Prozess und Persönlichkeitsstörungen

This paper begins with a cursory overview of psychotherapy outcome research for personality disorders; however, relatively little is known about process research or process outcome relationships. It then focuses on relevant patient and therapist variables. Significant controversies in personality disorder treatment techniques are examined. Initially, studies generally associated transference interpretation with less favorable therapy outcomes. Recent work supports the possibility of differentiated correlations. There is increasing evidence that a moderate amount of transference interpretation and perhaps even a therapeutic alliance that is not so good, maybe indicative of an inner conflict with the therapist relationship, could ultimately be beneficial. This association most probably does not exist in cluster C personality disorders. A problem with this type of research is that clear definitions are often lacking. This complicates comparisons between studies and the influence of other mediating variables remains vague.     

Personality at Work: Raising Awareness and Correcting Misconceptions

Personality variables have always predicted important behaviors and outcomes in industrial, work, and organizational psychology. In this commentary, we first review empirically supported structural models of personality that show the following: (a) Personality traits are hierarchically organized, (b) the Big Five are not orthogonal, (c) abnormal personality measures assess the same continuum of traits as normal adult personality measures, and (d) there are compound personality traits that are especially useful in the prediction of organizational behaviors. Second, we provide a brief overview of meta-analyses of compound personality variables. The highest operational validities of single scales (.40s) are associated with personality measures assessing broad, compound personality characteristics, such as integrity, violence potential, customer service orientation, and managerial potential, that incorporate aspects from multiple dimensions of the Big Five. Third, we also review meta-analytic evidence that has linked personality attributes to other important organizational attitudes and behaviors, such as job satisfaction, motivation, and leadership, with multiple correlations for the Big Five in the .40 to .50 range. Fourth, we discuss the important role that meta-analysis has had in establishing the predictive and explanatory value of personality variables. We conclude with some caveats and directions for future research.