An evolutionary system for neural logic networks using genetic programming and indirect encoding

Nowadays, intelligent connectionist systems such as artificial neural networks have been proved very powerful in a wide area of applications. Consequently, the ability to interpret their structure was always a desirable feature for experts. In this field, the neural logic networks (NLN) by their definition are able to represent complex human logic and provide knowledge discovery. However, under contemporary methodologies, the training of these networks may often result in non-comprehensible or poorly designed structures. In this work, we propose an evolutionary system that uses current advances in genetic programming that overcome these drawbacks and produces neural logic networks that can be arbitrarily connected and are easily interpretable into expert rules. To accomplish this task, we guide the genetic programming process using a context-free grammar and we encode indirectly the neural logic networks into the genetic programming individuals. We test the proposed system in two problems of medical diagnosis. Our results are examined both in terms of the solution interpretability that can lead in knowledge discovery, and in terms of the achieved accuracy. We draw conclusions about the effectiveness of the system and we propose further research directions.     

Jealousy mediates the relationship between attractiveness comparison and females' indirect aggression

Indirect aggression is considered an evolutionarily adaptive mechanism that can improve female mating success. It has been hypothesized that indirect aggression toward romantic partners and peers is used more frequently by females who make appearance‐based comparisons and that these relationships are mediated by jealousy. Females (N = 528) currently in romantic relationships were surveyed. Results confirmed females who made more frequent appearance comparisons aggressed more often toward partners and peers. Low‐comparing females reported being more frequent targets of peer indirect aggression. Jealousy partially mediated the relationships between making frequent attractiveness comparisons and indirect aggression. Results are discussed as effort allocated toward deterring partner defection and fending off rivals, and the role of emotion as a motivational influence for aggression.     

Context‐induced placebo effects—An investigation of contrast effects in response expectations and actual product efficacy

Recent research on the placebo effect of marketing actions has demonstrated that characteristics that are not inherent to a product's physical properties per se, such as its price, brand, or packaging can considerably shape consumers' expectations about and actual efficacy of a marketed product. However, potential contextual effects that other products may have on the construction of consumers' efficacy beliefs and objective consumption outcomes remain unexplored. Across two experimental studies, we show that people's response expectations regarding a focal product are inversely related to the alleged superiority of context options and that such context‐induced expectations can carry over to behavioural performance metrics; a phenomenon we refer to as context‐induced placebo effects.     

The case for the comparator model as an explanation of the sense of agency and its breakdowns

I compare Frith and colleagues’ influential comparator account of how the sense of agency is elicited to the multifactorial weighting model advocated by Synofzik and colleagues. I defend the comparator model from the common objection that the actual sensory consequences of action are not needed to elicit the sense of agency. I examine the comparator model’s ability to explain the performance of healthy subjects and those suffering from delusions of alien control on various self-attribution tasks. It transpires that the comparator model needs case-by-case adjustment to deal with problematic data. In response to this, the multifactorial weighting model of Synofzik and colleagues is introduced. Although this model is incomplete, it is more naturally constrained by the cases that are problematic for the comparator model. However, this model may be untestable. I conclude that currently the comparator model approach has stronger support than the multifactorial weighting model approach.     

Experiences with the indirect Clausen Test using NTA as an antigen in multiple sclerosis and other neurologic diseases

The present study based on the indirect Clausen-test using NTA and PHA as antigens contributed to therapy control and possibly prognosis assessment rather than to immunological differential diagnosis.     

The clinical efficacy and safety of galantamine in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease is a progressive, neurodegenerative condition characterized by deficits in cognition, inability to perform activities of daily living, and alterations in behavior. Galantamine hydrobromide is the newest acetylcholinesterase inhibitor (AChEI) approved in the United States for the treatment of mild-to-moderate AD. The safety and efficacy of galantamine has been demonstrated in multiple randomized, Phase III trials of >2,600 patients with mild-to-moderate AD. Studies have found that galantamine improved or maintained performance in all domains of AD (cognition, function, behavior, and caregiver burden) in the short term and slowed the decline in performance or maintained baseline performance through 12 months. The dual mechanism of action may make galantamine a reasonable treatment option for both newly diagnosed patients and patients who have not benefitted from or have poorly tolerated current therapy.     

Relative efficacy of using behavioral consultation as an approach to teacher stress management

The general literature has been slow to focus on the empirical validation of approaches to teacher occupational stress management. Using matched teacher groups, in this investigation we have outlined, compared, and evaluated two teacher stress management techniques, collaborative behavioral consultation (CBC) and relaxation training. Analyses of perceived teacher stress levels before intervention, after intervention, and at the follow-up assessment period revealed greater maintenance of effectiveness for the CBC group than for a control group. Such an ongoing effect was not found for the relaxation training approach. The possible reasons for these results were seen in terms of the more durable systemic, problem-solving nature of CBC, which, when focused on organizational and environmental stressors, contrasts sharply with the more individual-clinical approach to stress management exemplified by relaxation training.     

An integrative model of safety climate: Linking psychological climate and work attitudes to individual safety outcomes using meta‐analysis

Meta‐analytic path analysis was utilised to test an integrative model linking perceived safety climate to hypothesized organisational antecedents and individual outcomes. Psychological climate, especially the perception of organisational attributes, was found to be significantly associated with safety climate (both constructs measured at the individual level). A partial mediation model was supported. Within this model, the relationship between safety climate and safety behaviour was partially mediated by work‐related attitudes (organisational commitment and job satisfaction), and the relationship between safety climate and occupational accidents was partially mediated by both safety behaviour and general health. Safety climate acted as a partial mediator in the relationship between psychological climate and safety behaviour, with direct effects from climate perceptions relating to the leader and organisational processes. Avenues for further research and practical implications are discussed.     

Cultural differences in unrealistic optimism and pessimism: the role of egocentrism and direct versus indirect comparison measures

Recent research has raised questions regarding the consistency of unrealistic optimism and related self-enhancing tendencies, both within cultures and across cultures. The current study tested whether the method used to assess unrealistic optimism influenced cross-cultural patterns in the United States and Japan. The results showed that the direct method (a single comparison judgment between self and peers) produced similar patterns across cultures because of cognitive biases (e.g., egocentrism); specifically, participants were unrealistically optimistic about experiencing infrequent/negative events but pessimistic about experiencing frequent/ negative events. However, the indirect method (separate self- and peer judgments) produced different patterns across cultures because culturally specific motivational biases emerged using this method; specifically, the U.S. sample was more unrealistically optimistic than the Japanese sample. The authors discuss how these results might influence the interpretation of previous findings on culture and self-enhancement.     

An experimental investigation of a putative linguistic universal: Marking and the indirect object

Two experiments investigated how children acquire knowledge of the direct and the indirect object in terms of linguistic marking. This was done in order to test experimentally the psychological validity of a putative linguistic universal which holds that children should expect a marked linguistic form to be the indirect object. In the two experiments, an artificial language which marked these forms was used. This language eliminated the preposition “to” as well as word order as cues in learning the experimental forms. One group heard the indirect object as the marked form in the artificial language, and another group heard the direct object as the marked form. The linguistic theory would predict that the former group would be superior in learning the artificial language. However, using error scores, no difference was found between the two groups. This negative result was also independent of whether a child had achieved mastery of the normal English constructions involving direct and indirect object relationships. Reasons for the failure to find any evidence for this universal are discussed.     

Cultural foundations of safety culture: A comparison of traffic safety culture in China,Japan and the United States

Understanding how to assess the influence of culture on traffic safety is important for improving traffic safety globally. Traffic safety culture is embedded in the larger context of country’s cultural norms and values, producing different safety outcomes even when other factors are similar. The current work examines how culture influences traffic safety outcomes in three of the largest automobile countries in the world, but which have very different cultural values and which also have very different traffic safety outcomes: China, Japan and the United States. China has an emerging driver population and cultural values that result in aberrant driving behaviors and “scrambling” to gain the right of way, producing a high number of crashes. Japan has an established driver culture, but an emphasis on reducing risk, which results in a lower rate of crashes. The United States, with the most established “car culture”, has an historical and cultural view of the car as a representation of freedom, leading to choices that result in higher crash rates than many countries around the world. The current work explores these cultural underpinnings for traffic safety culture in each country by establishing the historical basis for a traffic culture, examining road, vehicle engineering and legal standards, and reviewing available crash data and data on safety attitudes. These countries are compared across the different dimensions to establish unique cultural influences on traffic safety.     

Resource control and status as stimuli for arousing power motivation: An American-Chinese comparison

In this paper, we analyze power motivation from a cross-cultural perspective. Power motivation has been mainly studied within the Western culture. However, previous research suggests that some contours and nuances of power and power motivation may be culturally specific. In this article, we analyze cultural differences between American and Chinese students in how power motivation is aroused. Drawing from the cross-cultural literature, we propose that having decision-making control over resources increases levels of power motivation among Americans but not Chinese, whereas status-elevation increases power motivation among both Americans and Chinese. These hypotheses were tested experimentally with resource-control, status-elevation, and neutral conditions. The first hypothesis was fully supported, but the second one was only partially supported. Levels of power motivation in the neutral condition (i.e., dispositional power motives) were similar for American and Chinese participants, but power motivation arousal was greater for Americans than Chinese, in both power arousal conditions. These findings contribute to our understanding of the power motivation construct in a non-Western context.     

An evaluation of methylphenidate as a potential establishing operation for some common classroom reinforcers.

We conducted reinforcer assessments for 3 boys with a diagnosis of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder who alternately received either placebo or previously prescribed methylphenidate. Our purpose was to evaluate whether methylphenidate altered the relative reinforcing effectiveness of various stimuli that are often used in classroom-based behavioral treatment programs (e.g., activities, tangible items). Results showed clear differences for some stimuli between reinforcer assessments conducted when participants had received methylphenidate compared to placebo. Results suggest that methylphenidate might act as an establishing operation for some common classroom reinforcers. Implications for the development and evaluation of behavioral treatments are discussed.     

The necessity and the value of placebo

The use of placebo in clinical trials has been repeatedly challenged as being unacceptable from an ethical point of view. The present paper responds to this criticism by taking up the issue in the light of the pertinent provisions of the Helsinki Declaration. Examples from different therapeutic areas are given that highlight the importance of placebo in situations in which its use is acceptable according to the Declaration. Particular emphasis is given to the question of active control trials, which, under conditions of low assay sensitivity, may become an ethically less acceptable approach than the use of a placebo control. An earlier version of this paper was presented at an international conference, “Placebo: Its Action and Place in Health Research Today,” held in Warsaw, Poland on 12–13 April, 2003.     

An ecological momentary assessment of comparison target as a moderator of the effects of appearance-focused social comparisons

This research examined whether comparison target moderates the effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons on women's affect, appearance esteem, and dieting thoughts. During daily activities, body-satisfied (BS) women and body-dissatisfied (BD) women recorded their comparison targets and reactions to comparison information. For BS women, upward comparisons with peers were associated with more positive affect (PA) and appearance esteem and less guilt than upward comparisons with media images and downward comparisons with peers were associated with less PA than downward comparisons with media images. For BD women, upward comparisons with peers were associated with more appearance esteem and diet thoughts than upward comparisons with media images and downward comparisons with peers were associated with less PA, appearance esteem, and diet thoughts and more guilt than downward comparisons with media images.     

An examination of the influence of crosswalk marking removal on pedestrian safety as reflected in road user behaviours

In some local authorities in Israel, road markings were removed from non-signalised crosswalks situated on multilane divided urban roads. This study examined whether this treatment contributes to pedestrian safety, based on the analysis of differences in road user behaviours and pedestrian crossing conditions at sites without crosswalk markings (treatment sites) versus those with the markings (comparison sites). Field observations were conducted at two treatment and four comparison sites, including video-recordings and free-flow speed measurements. The speed data analysis indicated that treatment sites were associated with higher speeds as compared to other sites, at least in one travel direction, and that speed values were sufficiently high to create a threat of severe injury for the crossing pedestrians. Examinations of other road user behaviours showed that treatment sites are associated with higher obedience of pedestrians to safe crossing rules and low rates of pedestrian-vehicle conflicts during the crossing, but also with long waiting times by pedestrians prior to crossing, low rates of giving-way to pedestrians and more vehicles ignoring pedestrian needs to cross. In general, pedestrian crosswalk removal brought about a worsening in the possibility of crossing the road for pedestrians that in combination with high vehicle speeds cannot be recognised as a safety-improving measure. The study did not support the claim that removing a marked crosswalk leads to safety benefits for pedestrians.     

Appreciation of pragmatic interpretations of indirect commands: comparison of right and left hemisphere brain-damaged patients

Indirect commands can elicit "literal" interpretations, directly reflecting the content and form of the utterance, or "pragmatic" interpretations, incorporating knowledge of paralinguistic, social, or historical cues. The aim of this study was to demonstrate how right brain-damaged (RBD) subjects would perform on judgments of these forms of communication. It was predicted that relative to normal controls or aphasic subjects, the RBD subjects would have significant difficulty appreciating the pragmatic interpretation relative to the literal one. Subjects judged the appropriateness of two-part exchanges consisting of indirect commands, direct commands, Wh-questions coupled with pragmatic responses, literal responses, responses verifying the physical surround, or syntactically similar responses. The results confirm that the RBD subjects had a selective difficulty appreciating the indirect commands. Their preference of literal over pragmatic interpretations was significantly different to that of aphasics or normal controls. Hypotheses are offered to explain these data.