Sex-role identification and self-esteem in college students: Do men and women differ?

To explore the relationship between sex-role identification, achievement motivation, and self-esteem, 312 male and female college students were given the Stereotype Questionnaire, a modified form of the Mehrabian Achievement Motivation Test, and the Tennessee Self Concept Scale. Group self-esteem scores of males and females did not differ significantly. While achievement motivation was a significant correlate of self-esteem for both males and females, the relationship was significantly stronger for females than for males. Furthermore, a significant direct relationship was found for both males and females between a stereotypically more masculine orientation and self-esteem. A mutually reinforcing salutary circle of processes was proposed to explain the results.     

Does body satisfaction differ between gay men and lesbian women and heterosexual men and women? A meta-analytic review

Studies investigating body image satisfaction among groups of different sexual orientations (i.e., gay men, lesbian women, and heterosexual men and women) have produced equivocal findings. To synthesise the available research, 27 studies (20 published and 7 unpublished) were meta-analysed (N=5220). Comparisons between heterosexual (n=1397) and gay men (n=984) produced a small effect size, with the former being slightly more satisfied with their bodies. An even smaller difference was observed for studies comparing heterosexual (n=1391) and lesbian women (n=1448), with greater levels of body satisfaction being evidenced by the latter group. Tests of homogeneity for each effect size were found to be highly significant. In an attempt to identify variables that may be responsible for the observed heterogeneity, the following categorical factors were assessed: the measures used to evaluate body satisfaction, date of study (1980s versus 1990s+), publication status (published or unpublished), and body weight. The results of this exploratory search for potential moderator variables as well as limitations of the current meta-analysis are discussed.     

Human sexuality: how do men and women differ?

A large body of scientific research documents four important gender differences in sexuality. First, on a wide variety of measures, men show greater sexual desire than do women. Second, compared with men, women place greater emphasis on committed relationships as a context for sexuality. Third, aggression is more strongly linked to sexuality for men than for women. Fourth, women's sexuality tends to be more malleable and capable of change over time. These male-female differences are pervasive, affecting thoughts and feelings as well as behavior, and they characterize not only heterosexuals but lesbians and gay men as well. Implications of these patterns are considered.     

Valuations of compensation and benefit items by new entrants into the professional workforce: Do men and women differ?

Women make up nearly half of the workforce in America, and they continue to enter fields such as business and engineering in record numbers. Additionally, more women with children under 3 years of age are remaining in the workforce. Considering these changes, examining whether the compensation and benefit preferences of male and female entrants into the workforce are different now than they were 15 to 20 years ago is relevant. This study used a sample of 195 college seniors to examine this issue. Results suggested that compensation and benefit preferences of current new entrants are somewhat different from the preferences reported in earlier studies.     

Young men’s minimisation of their body dissatisfaction

Abstract

Objective: To examine men’s body dissatisfaction qualitatively.

Design: Forty-two British men aged 18–45 years took part in a two-session group intervention across 12 groups. The intervention was designed to improve body dissatisfaction by engaging them in a critique of the appearance ideal through written and behavioural exercises.

Main outcome measures/results: Analysis of the topics discussed during the intervention generated two core themes. Theme 1 showed that, in general, men minimised the existence of their own body dissatisfaction while (somewhat surprisingly) outlining the ubiquity and potency of the appearance ideal for men in general. Theme 2 involved men reporting the problematic impact of body dissatisfaction in their lives (despite earlier minimisation), such as social avoidance, strict eating and supplement regimes, or difficulty in situations where the body was exposed.

Conclusion: The results stress the need to acknowledge that men experience a range of impacts of body dissatisfaction beyond clinical presentations (such as disordered eating) that influence their everyday lives, while also recognising that they tend to minimise this dissatisfaction in conversation. These findings have important implications for advocacy and interventions to improve men’s body dissatisfaction.     

Height and attraction: Do men and women see eye-to-eye?1

Two experiments were conducted to examine the influence of male height on interpresonal attraction. In Experiment 1, short, medium, and tall women evaluated pictures of men whom they believed to be either short, medium, or tall. On the basis of previous research, it was predicted that women's attraction to the men would be an increasing linear function of the men's height. This prediction was not confirmed; men of medium height were seen to be significantly more socially desirable than either short or tall men. This was true whether the female evaluator was short, medium, or tall; women did not differ in their evaluations. In Experiment 2, short, medium, and tall men evaluated the same male stimuli the women had evaluated in Experiment 1. These men not only gave their own evaluation of the male stimuli, but they also estimated how socially desirable the males pictured were to women. While men showed no evidence that they believed height was important to women, their own evaluations revealed that they liked and rated short men more positively than they did tall men. This was true regardless of the height of the male rater. These results were discussed in terms of social stereotypes and the importance of specifying situational context in the prediction of attraction.     

Stress,appraisal and work routine in wartime: do men and women differ?

Past research has devoted little attention to the role of work routine (i.e., adherence to a consistent pattern of attending work in a regular, predictable manner) in civilians' lives during wartime. The current study offers competing theoretical arguments on how work routine and gender combine to moderate the association between primary appraisal and war-related stress among civilians during the second Lebanon war (July–August 2006). Data were collected using telephone interviews (based on a structured questionnaire) with 2072 civilians. The sample was obtained using a within-strata random-sampling method. Our results suggest that negative affect (a symptom of stress) is associated with more negative primary appraisal of the war situation (i.e., higher threat appraisal). The association between negative affect and appraisal was attenuated among individuals engaging in regular work routine and among men. Moreover, the positive relationship between work routine and appraisal was stronger among women than among men. This study provides insight into the role of the workplace in the lives of civilians exposed to continuing in unsafe situations. In light of the past research suggesting that women are more vulnerable to war-related stress than men, this study proposes that regular work routine may be particularly beneficial for women.     

Do men find "bony" women attractive?: Consequences of misperceiving opposite sex perceptions of attractive body image

Due to its role in the development and maintenance of eating disorders, body image perceptions and dissatisfaction continue to be an important area of study. Perceptions of attractive body images held by members of the opposite sex are an important determinant of body image satisfaction among both men and women. This research shows that men are accurate in their perceptions of what women find attractive among men, but women believe men want women to be thinner than men actually report. Furthermore, this inaccurate perception is associated with eating disorder symptomatology. The role of contingent self-worth was also assessed. Results indicate that individuals whose self-worth is more contingent on appearance-related standards experience more negative consequences than those who misperceive what the opposite sex finds attractive, but whose self-worth is less contingent on appearance. Implications for intervention are discussed.     

Bulimic symptoms and body image dissatisfaction in college women: more affected by climate or race?

The authors examined bulimic symptoms and body image dissatisfaction (BID) in a sample of college women. No differences were found in comparisons of bulimic symptoms or BID between Southern and Northern White women, and both groups reported similar levels of awareness and internalization of sociocultural aesthetic standards of appearance. Southeastern Black women reported (a) significantly lower levels of bulimic symptoms in comparison with White women from the North and (b) lower levels of BID in comparison with White women from both Southern and Northern regions. Further, Southeastern Black women were significantly less likely to be aware of and endorse mainstream standards of appearance in comparison with both groups of White women. Findings support the hypothesis that having a positive body image and less susceptibility to mainstream aesthetic standards of appearance may reduce the risk of eating disorder pathology in Black women.     

Do women and men receive different care for sore throats?

Several studies have shown differences in the rates at which women and men receive treatment for several common medical problems, especially heart disease. The reason for these differences and the extent to which men and women receive different treatments for other problems is unclear. The purpose of the current study was to determine whether there are differences in the rates men and women receive antibiotic therapy for pharyngitis (sore throat), whether these differences are related to differences in disease severity or comorbidity across the sexes, and whether these differences could be due to prejudice against women by male clinicians. This was a retrospective analysis of data at two university student health services in Pennsylvania and Nebraska. Male clinicians did not prescribe antibiotics at significantly different rates for male and female patients, but female clinicians prescribed antibiotics more frequently for their male patients.The original data collection was supported in part by a grant from the National Library of Medicine, LM-04321.Presented in part at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Medical Decision Making, Portland, Oregon, October, 1992, and at the Third Primary Care Research Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, 1993.We thank Jane Kreisberg and Linda Rizjis for coordination of the collection of the original data, Linda Gray for help with data entry, and Cheryl Kull and Mary Martino for secretarial support. We are grateful to all the physicians who participated in the original study.     

Women and body dissatisfaction: Does sexual orientation make a difference?

In this study, heterosexual (n = 95) and nonheterosexual (n = 84) women were asked to rate figure drawings and computer-generated images of women that varied in body fat, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size in terms of self, ideal, and cultural ideal; discrepancy indices, indicating body dissatisfaction, were created for each body aspect. Nonheterosexual women had significantly higher body mass indices (BMIs) than heterosexual women, but when the effects of BMI were controlled, participants evidenced similar perceptions of their bodies, their ideal bodies, and the female cultural ideal, as well as similar levels of body dissatisfaction for body fat, waist-to-hip ratio, and breast size. The results of this study suggest that being a member of a society that highly values a thin, curvaceous, relatively large-breasted body puts women, regardless of sexual orientation, at risk for body dissatisfaction.     

Plans for balancing work and family life: Do women pursuing nontraditional and traditional occupations differ?

Work-involvement plans of women pursuing training in three fields are compared. Three approaches to the connection between gender and work are reviewed: an occupational, a differential gender socialization, and a role conflict approach. Data from 173 female students in traditional (nursing) and nontraditional (engineering and veterinary medicine) fields are used. The work plans of women pursuing these traditional and nontraditional occupations were similar. A minority in each field expected to work full time when their children were of preschool age. We obtained modest support for the structural and differential gender socialization approaches, and substantial support for the role conflict approach. Plans to pursue nontraditional professions do not appear associated with plans for nontraditional family life.     

Do lesbian women have a better body image? Comparisons with heterosexual women and model of lesbian-specific factors

Body dissatisfaction is prevalent among women but may be less common among lesbian women. Although research trends toward this conclusion when samples are well-matched and body mass index (BMI) is controlled for, many studies do not exhibit these characteristics. Furthermore, few studies have examined sociocultural contributors to group differences. I addressed limitations of past research with a large community sample of lesbian (n = 479) and heterosexual (n = 400) women. I contrasted the two sexual identity groups on several body dissatisfaction measures, and tested theoretically derived relationships between lesbian-specific cultural factors and body dissatisfaction. As predicted, lesbian women reported lower body dissatisfaction than did heterosexual women on three of four measures, and expressed a larger ideal body size. A structural equation model of lesbian-specific risk and protective factors for body dissatisfaction did not reveal significant relationships. This study represents a first attempt to model culturally specific influences on lesbian body image.     

When men and women differ in self-esteem and when they don’t: A meta-analysis

A meta-analysis of gender differences in self-esteem (1148 studies from 2009 to 2013; total N = 1,170,935) found a small difference, g = 0.11 (95% CI = 0.10–0.13), favoring males. Additionally, (1) the gender difference increased with age until late adolescence, and declined afterwards; (2) Whites, Hispanics, and Asian Americans showed the same gender difference whereas African Americans and marginal groups (e.g., immigrants) did not show any difference; (3) the gender difference was larger in more developed countries characterized by values that espouse equality and freedom; and (4) inspection of previous reviews showed that the gender difference emerged after the 1970s, increased until 1995, and declined afterwards. A three-stage model of comparison processes was proposed to account for these results.     

Do men and women use different tactics to cope with the embarrassment of buying condoms?

It has been proposed that people cope with the embarrassment of acquiring condoms using a variety of tactics, such as buying from a sales clerk of the same gender or buying additional products. However, the actual use and efficacy of these coping mechanisms have not been rigorously evaluated. This research investigates three specific questions related to coping with embarrassment: (R1) Do people prefer cashiers of the same gender when buying condoms because it helps them cope with embarrassment or because of the similarity‐attraction effect? (R2) When multiple coping mechanisms are available, do people use more than one at a time? And (R3) Do men and women prefer different coping tactics? Using an experimental design, Study 1 investigates R1 and finds support for both explanations. Studies 2 and 3 use field and lab experiments, respectively, to investigate R2 and R3. The findings indicate that people only use one coping tactic at a time and that men and women have a different preference for coping tactics. Women prefer coping tactics that mask condom acquisition, while men prefer social–emotional support tactics. Furthermore, discrepancies between the field experiment and lab experiments indicate that people underestimate the influence of embarrassment on their actual behavior.     

Can men and women be just friends?

We tested evolution‐based hypotheses about (1) sex differences in perceived benefits and costs of opposite‐sex friendship and (2) differences in perceived benefits of same‐sex friendships and opposite‐sex friendships. In the Preliminary Study (N= 400), an act nomination procedure was used to identify the benefits and costs of same‐sex friendships and opposite‐sex friendships. In Study 1, a total of 231 participants (100 men, 131 women) evaluated the frequency of occurrence of 100 benefits and costs in their closest same‐sex friendship or opposite‐sex friendship. In Study 2, a total of 229 participants (92 men, 137 women) evaluated how beneficial and how costly each would be if it were to occur in their closest same‐sex friendship or opposite‐sex friendship. Results supported several key hypotheses. Men perceived sex with their opposite‐sex friends as more beneficial than did women. Women reported receiving protection from their opposite‐sex friends more often than did men, and they perceived the protection as highly beneficial. Both men and women reported receiving information from opposite‐sex friends about how to attract mates, and they perceived this information as beneficial. The discussion focuses on whether these benefits reflect an evolved psychology of opposite‐sex friendship, or instead are incidental by‐products.     

Do motivational interviewing behaviors predict reductions in partner aggression for men and women?

Motivational interviewing is a directive, non-confrontational intervention to promote behavior change. The current study examined therapist behaviors during a successful brief motivational interviewing intervention for physically aggressive college dating couples (Woodin & O'Leary, 2010). Forty-five minute motivational interviews with each partner were videotaped and coded using the Motivational Interviewing Treatment Integrity scale (MITI; Moyers, Martin, Manuel, & Miller, 2003). Hierarchical modeling analyses demonstrated that therapist behaviors consistent with motivational interviewing competency predicted significantly greater reductions in physical aggression perpetration following the intervention. Specifically, greater reflection to question ratios by the therapists predicted reductions in aggression for both men and women, greater percentages of open versus closed questions predicted aggression reductions for women, and there was a trend for greater levels of global therapist empathy to predict aggression reductions for women. These findings provide evidence that motivational interviewing seems to have an effect on behavior change through therapist behaviors consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of motivational interviewing.     

Siblings’ appearance-related commentary,body dissatisfaction,and risky eating behaviors in young women

IntroductionNegative feedback on appearance is a risk factor for the development of problems related to one's body image.ObjectiveThe present research aimed to analyze the relationship among siblings’ positive and negative appearance-related feedback, dissatisfaction with one's body and risky eating behaviors among young women. The mediational role of body-related social comparison has been investigated.MethodTwo hundred and eight young women living in Italy, with a mean age of 23.15 years, filled in a questionnaire containing the Italian version of the Verbal Commentary on Physical Appearance Scale – Siblings, the Physical Appearance Comparison Scale, the Body Shape Questionnaire-14, and the Eating Disorder Examination-Questionnaire.ResultsDissatisfaction with one's body shows a significant link with risky eating behaviors. Weight and shape-related positive comments made by siblings were significantly and negatively related to social comparison, which in turn was associated with women's dissatisfaction with their body image. Negative comments were directly linked to body dissatisfaction; the mediation role of social comparison with respect to negative comments was not confirmed.ConclusionsThese findings underline the significant role of siblings in the development of females’ body image. Programs aimed to prevent or reduce body dissatisfaction and risky eating behavior could be implemented; these programs should be concerned with not only negative feedback on appearance but also positive comments because of their relevant role.     

Sex differences in graduate student ambition: Do men publish while women perish?

This paper compares men and women graduate students at one university and identifies conditions under which women students equal or surpass men in ambition. Men and women were broadly similar in background characteristics, though different in current family status. They studied different subjects, aimed for different degrees, and were concentrated in different years in the university. If women were to equal the most highly ambitious men on ambition to publish and engage in related behaviors, they had to aspire to a doctorate, survive past the second year of study, and have nontraditional attitudes toward women's role. The results are discussed in terms of differential student careers and barriers to the development of ambition in student women.The research upon which this paper is based was carried out with the assistance of a Lena Lake Forrest Fellowship from the Business and Professional Women's Foundation, Washington, D.C.The author wishes to thank G. L. Millerson and C. T. Husbands for comments on the draft, and Beryl Collins and Bryn Saunders for help with the typing.     

The role of peer influence on girls’ body dissatisfaction and dieting

IntroductionPeer influence is considered a global construct, although the effects of its various dimensions on body dissatisfaction and dieting via internalisation of the thin ideal and social comparison have yet to be analysed.ObjectiveThe aim of this study was to analyse how the different dimensions of peer influence (i.e., perception of teasing, appearance conversation with friends and peer attributions about the importance of appearance with regard to popularity) affect body dissatisfaction and dieting.MethodA total of 298 Italian adolescent girls and young women completed a questionnaire assessing different dimensions of peer influence, internalisation of the thin ideal, social comparison, body dissatisfaction and dieting.ResultsThe results indicated that peer attributions and appearance conversations with friends affect body dissatisfaction and dieting through internalisation and social comparison. Teasing had a direct effect on girls’ dissatisfaction levels.ConclusionsThe current findings have important preventive and treatment implications. Preventive interventions should not target sociocultural influences as a whole, rather they should analyse the specific dimensions of peer influence, with consideration for the degree to which girls internalise sociocultural messages and engage in social comparison.