Student Learning Outcomes for Biblical Studies in the Liberal Arts

What is the role of biblical studies in a liberal arts curriculum? At the 2009 North American Society of Biblical Literature conference, a panel of seven Bible scholars provided brief analyses and arguments about the appropriate goals of teaching biblical studies in undergraduate contexts in this historical moment. They consider and critique the notion of specific Student Learning Outcomes or Objectives (SLOs) for courses about the Bible. In the process they address questions such as: what is the relative importance of “coverage” (biblical literacy, disciplinary knowledge and methods, and the historical creation of the biblical texts) versus modern and historical reception and uses of these texts? In their contributions, the authors analyze ways that a biblical studies course can develop the critical reading and writing skills that are the hallmark of undergraduate education. Some authors find these skills furthered by not bracketing from study the normative truth claims in the texts and instead strategically and critically encouraging the identity work and religious seeking associated with religious uses of these texts. Others call attention to the institutional and classroom power dynamics which inform and are constituted by the current student learning outcomes movement.     

A Note on Scripture in the Summa theologiae

Beginning with the question of whether Aquinas's  Summa theologiae  inevitably distorts the meaning of biblical texts by removing them from their narrative context, this essay suggests that one way to think about Aquinas's use of Scripture in the  Summa theologiae  is to read together, as an ensemble, the biblical texts that he cites when treating a particular theme. Focusing on his first four questions on the virtue of faith ( ST  II-II, qq. 1–4), I argue that Aquinas's selection of biblical texts from across the canonical Scriptures enables him to provide a nuanced biblical perspective on a particular theme even without finding it necessary to quote Scripture in every article. I seek to bring to light the way that the various biblical texts in the question—whose functions within the articles are widely diverse, from providing the hinge for a  responsio  to framing a minor objection–complement and echo one another.     

Social Ecology: A Hermeneutical Framework for Reading Biblical Texts? A Latin American Perspective

Using the concept of “social ecology” developed by Murray Bookchin as a starting point, this article explores the reception of this idea in Latin America before elaborating some key principles derived from this concept for a hermeneutical strategy to approach biblical texts. In particular, the article argues that Bookchin's understanding of the seriousness of the ecological crisis and of its causes, his views on the issues around exploitation, hierarchy and domination, gender and age oppression, and his criticism of the prevailing economic and political dimension could provide a hermeneutical framework that is relevant for an ecologically sound and justice‐centred reading of biblical texts.     

THE ACHIEVEMENT OF MICHAEL WYSCHOGROD

Michael Wyschogrod is the most important Jewish thinker in the Modern Orthodox tradition since Joseph Soloveitchik. The key to Wyschogrod's significance consists in the point where he differs from Soloveitchik most dramatically. Whereas Soloveitchik held that “the religious or theological logos should not be employed as the medium of communication between two [different] faith communities”, Wyschogrod regards such communication as a Jewish imperative. The essay explores Wyschogrod's use of “the theological logos as the medium of communication” with reference to his understanding of the relation of faith and reason as illustrated by the story of Franz Redner, a Holocaust survivor.     

John Milbank and Biblical Hermeneutics: the End of the Historical‐Critical Method?

It is perhaps ironic that a methodology still convinced of its radical iconoclasm and progressive nature should at the same time be regarded as critically backward, a by‐product of a disappearing philosophy. Such a view of the historical‐critical method is held by John Milbank who argues that because of its dependence upon heretical philosophies that affirm the ontological autonomy of a world without reference to or participation in God, it should be confined to theological history. This essay will argue that Milbank's challenge ought to be taken seriously by Christian biblical interpreters and suggests that historical‐critical study, in the form criticised by Milbank, needs to be rejected. Milbank exposes the philosophical bankruptcy of the method from a Christian perspective; nevertheless, Milbank overstretches himself. His rejection of the historical‐critical method results in a hermeneutic that has no place for a biblical text's historical particularity and sense. 1 Because of this, he is left subsuming historic texts into the regula fidei of his philosophical meta‐narrative, whether they fit such a move or not. This is particularly the case with Milbank's treatment of biblical texts, which, it shall be argued, operates as a refusal of history and a refusal of the particularity and alterity of the text. This highlights the need for an historical hermeneutic for Christian biblical interpretation, based on theological presuppositions, which takes the theological value of both historical particularity and the text seriously.     

Cracking a Conundrum: Christian Origins in Egypt

The biblical conquest account in Joshua 1–12 raises questions about the hermeneutical and ethical challenges of the biblical textual tradition. While these texts may be sought to be better understood on the background of Ancient Near Eastern cultural and literary conventions, this does not relieve interpreters of the problem that these texts support the extermination of the inhabitants of the captured cities. Since these texts are not just products of past cultures but are still accorded authority and, in some cases, actively used to support discreet programs of action and to justify violence, the challenge of the place of the biblical texts needs to be faced by biblical scholars, theologians, and leaders in contemporary society alike. This article raises and explores some of these questions.     

Teaching the Prophetic Marriage Metaphor Texts

This article considers those passages in the prophetic writings of the Hebrew Bible that present the relationship between God and the people by means of a metaphor of a man and his promiscuous female partner. It reflects upon how these texts may fruitfully be taught in a seminary or college introductory Bible course, arguing that they should be included in the curriculum and not ignored. Practical recommendations of methods for presenting such biblical passages in the classroom are suggested.     

Robert Rollock on covenant and sacrament

Abstract

This contribution presents two, less-well-known texts from the Latin corpus of the Scottish theologian, Robert Rollock (d.1599). Rollock significantly informed the evolution of thinking on the divine covenants by virtue of his relatively unprecedented, mature doctrine of a pre-Fall ‘covenant of works’ between God and humankind. Historians of Reformed theology have long recognized Rollock’s importance in this regard, but their familiarity with his doctrine has stemmed almost entirely from Tractatus de vocatione efficaci(1597). The Scot advanced his covenant doctrine in other, earlier texts, including a brief catechism on the covenants (1596) and a series of short tracts published with his Romans commentary (1593). The tracts are particularly noteworthy since, given the popularity of Rollock’s biblical commentaries in his day, these texts were very likely read more widely than his later catechism or Tractatus; they likely served as the principal vehicle through which his covenantal ideas were disseminated. Two tracts, De foedere Dei and De sacramento, are offered here in English translation, thus affording readers access to Rollock’s earliest covenantal ideas, influential in Reformed thought.     

The Arts,Midrash, and Biblical Teaching

Abstract. Biblical texts have been handed on to us through a long history of interpretation. Awareness of this rich but complex process is one of the goals of biblical teaching. Since the earliest centuries of the church there has been a parallel history of artistic interaction with the biblical text. These artistic treatments of biblical subjects have had a great cultural impact and have deeply influenced public perceptions and understandings of the Bible. Unfortunately, seldom does this history of artistic interpretation become a part of Bible courses. In this paper, I reflect on learnings from a serious effort to take artistic resources and methodologies into account in teaching Hebrew Bible in a theological school. My most successful efforts have employed the ancient Jewish interpretive method of midrash. Use of midrash opens new, imaginative possibilities that can enliven and extend our usual exegesis of texts. More specifically, midrash provides the ideal category for understanding artistic interactions with biblical texts. Through midrash students can understand artists to be both profound respecters of the power and integrity of biblical texts, while at the same time extending and entering into imaginative encounter with those texts. This article will appear as a chapter in the forthcoming book Arts, Theology, and the Church: New Intersections.     

Bullinger's Defence of Infant Baptism in Debate with the Anabaptists

Abstract

Bullinger presents his understanding of infant baptism not only in systematic or summary form in the Decades and confessional works but also in dialogue or discussion form in other works. From 1525 what is fundamental in expounding his view and in challenging his opponents’ views is the argument from the covenant, which is one and eternal. In 1525 he begins with this and then examines Anabaptist objections. However in 1531 and 1560 he begins with his opponents’ case, though with different elements in it. The substance of his defence of infant baptism is unchanged between 1525 and 1560, though some new arguments emerge over the years. There is continuity between Zwingli and Bullinger, both in the argument from the covenant and in a range of biblical arguments. However, unlike Zwingli, Bullinger makes no use of election in support of his case and later expounds Acts 19 differently from Zwingli.     

Exclusivist or Universalist? Origen the ‘Wise Steward of the Word’ (CommRom. V.1.7) and the Issue of Genre

Abstract: This article explores the issue of Origen's universalism. It identifies the two seemingly self‐contradictory strands in the Origen corpus which have led to dual pictures of Origen as either an arch‐universalist or an exclusivist. To make sense of this, the hermeneutical key of CommRom. V.1.7 (in which Origen states Paul covers over his universalism to be a ‘wise steward of the word’) is applied to Origen's own texts. Identifying the different genres in Origen's works, it is clear that different stances on universalism are taken dependent upon the genre of his work. The question is posed as to whether such a move in theology is justifiable and biblical.     

Beyond the Biblical Impasse: Homosexuality Through the Lens of Theological Anthropology

Abstract: What does the Bible say about homosexuality? The argument developed in this article demonstrates that the five biblical texts often cited as “proof” that the Bible condemns homosexuality reflect a theological anthropology that is challenged within Scripture itself and that has been determined by the church to be contextual rather than binding in relation to other debated issues. By bringing the theological anthropology reflected in the five texts into conversation with contrasting biblical anthropologies, it becomes possible to re‐frame the contemporary conversation on homosexuality in terms of discerning which biblical theological anthropology will be considered authoritative for the church in the 21^st century.     

The hermeneutic circle and authoral intention in divine revelation

In his recent book on revelation, Jorge Gracia rejects the authorial intention view of textual interpretation, arguing that the only interpretation that makes sense for texts regarded as divinely revealed is theological interpretation. Both his position and the authorial view face the problem of the Hermeneutical Circle. I contend that the arguments he provides in his own defense do not successfully avoid the circularity present in his own view. His thesis about expected behavior might provide resources for a solution, but this thesis in turn can be used to respond to his own objections against the authorial intention view of interpreting divinely revealed texts.     

JESUS' LANGUAGE‐GAMES: THE SIGNIFICANCE OF THE NOTION OF LANGUAGE‐GAME FOR A REFORMULATION OF ‘NEW TESTAMENT BIBLICAL THEOLOGY’1

Despite the exciting consequences of the later Wittgenstein's notion of language‐game for theology in general, one discipline centered on language – exegesis and biblical theology – has remained largely unaffected by this advance. I here show that describing biblical language as a language‐game not only enhances our understanding of biblical texts; it also explodes a long‐term impasse separating the interpretation from the ‘actualization’ of sacred texts. Insights taken from the notion of a language‐game may, as with form of life and grammar, emerge as central building blocks for reformulating the postulates of biblical theology. 1     

Biblical Fidelity of Christian School Textbooks

A reasonable expectation of textbooks used in Christian schools is that they should regularly incorporate biblical content. It is also reasonable to expect the biblical content to be integrated—not segregated—to influence matters such as worldview, biblical relevance, character, and integrative skills. This expectation was tested via a representative sampling of 15 texts across a span of elementary, middle, and high school grades and representative content areas from eight Christian schools in the eastern Virginia region. Important findings include: close to half the texts used in the schools were from non-Christian publishers; textbooks from Christian publishers were predominantly from only two companies; the adequacy of textbook worldview scores is not in alignment with research showing major student deficiency in Christian worldviews; and approximately half of the scores for Christian textbooks were below the minimally acceptable level.     

God and Contemporary Science: Philip Clayton's Defense of Panentheism

Philip Clayton's God and Contemporary Science is summarized and discussed. Clayton presents a theological reading of biblical texts. In my opinion, science-and-religion studies should deal more substantially with insights of secular studies on the situated character of these texts. Clayton uses the relationship between mind and brain as analogy for the relationship between God and the world. This runs the risk of understanding God as analogous to the mind and hence secondary and emergent relative to the world. Besides, Clayton's arguments for “mental causation” are wanting. But then, why should a defender of panentheism decouple the mental and the material?     

The Paradigm Challenged A New Analysis of the Origin of Diakonia 1

The classical paradigm saw the apostolic and biblical age as a special moment for the diaconal ministry. The important role of the diaconal ministry continued for just a few centuries and finally withered. According to this study, the traditional outline is not historically true, or at least we need new evidence in order to argue for the biblical origin of a social-caritative diaconal ministry. Following the interpretation of New Testament texts by Luther and Calvin, the 19^th century diaconia movement projected its own life setting into the ancient texts. Thus the return to the biblical ministry of diaconia actually turned out to be a reinterpretation of biblical and early church writings. The ministry of diakonos in the early church was not invented by the modern movement, but it gave a totally new meaning to the ancient Greek concept and also launched a new way to use diakonia-derivative vocabulary.     

Is the Biblical Land Promise Irrevocable?: Post‐Nostra Aetate Catholic Theologies of the Jewish Covenant and the Land of Israel

This article studies the various ways that Catholics have interpreted the biblical promise of the land of Israel to Abraham and his descendants after Nostra Aetate, which affirmed the continuing legitimacy of the Jewish covenant containing this promise. Specifically, it analyzes the range of views regarding the religious significance of the land promise in Catholic statements on Jews and Judaism. These official Vatican statements affirm the covenant in general but decline to offer any theological legitimacy to this particular aspect of it. I argue that their perspective on the covenant is circumscribed and self‐referential. By contrast, other statements, despite beginning with nearly identical texts (both biblical and Catholic) and theological assumptions, not only affirm the covenant generically but insist that the land promise is itself an integral and legitimate part of the covenant.     

Defending Desire: Scanlon's Anti-Humeanism

In the opening chapter of What We Owe To Each Other , Tim Scanlon produces a sustained critique of a Humean conception of practical reason. Scanlon claims he will argue that unless having a desire just is to see something as a reason, desires play (almost) no role in the explanation or justification of action. Yet his specific arguments against Humeanism all employ a very austere understanding of desire (which he calls the "standard model"), and attempt to show that desires so understood are not up to any explanatory or justificatory task. Since the standard model represents only one understanding of desire (distinct from the "recognition of reasons") his specific arguments cannot establish his stated general thesis. I show how a more robust conception of desire will leave the Humean account safe from Scanlon's specific arguments.