Is BodyThink an efficacious body image and self-esteem program? A controlled evaluation with adolescents

This study aimed to evaluate the efficacy of BodyThink, a widely disseminated body image and self-esteem program. Participants were 277, grade 7 students from 4 secondary schools in Australia. The intervention group (62 girls, 85 boys) participated in BodyThink during four 50-min lessons, while the control group (65 girls, 65 boys) received their usual classes. All participants completed baseline, postintervention and 3-month follow-up questionnaires. For girls, the intervention group reported higher media literacy and lower internalization of the thin ideal compared to the control group. For boys, the intervention group reported higher media literacy and body satisfaction than the control group. Although some positive outcomes were observed, it would be valuable to find ways to enhance the impact of BodyThink, especially in light of its wide dissemination. Suggestions for improving BodyThink are presented.     

Psychological defense and self-esteem instability: Is defense style associated with unstable self-esteem?

Defense styles refer to the characteristic employment of automatic psychological processes to maintain and enhance self-esteem. On the basis of clinical literature pertaining to defense styles, it was hypothesized that the maturity of an individual’s defenses would be associated with fluctuations in one’s state self-esteem over time (i.e., self-esteem instability). To examine this hypothesis, the present study included daily diary measures that tracked the state self-esteem of 123 participants each day for 14 consecutive days. The results of the present study found that higher levels of immature defenses were associated with greater self-esteem instability. For both the intermediate and mature defense styles, their associations with self-esteem instability were moderated by self-esteem level such that higher levels of these defenses were associated with less self-esteem instability among those with low self-esteem.     

Assessing the relationships among stress,god-mediated control,and psychological distress/well-being: Does the level of education matter?

One of the primary functions of religion is to help people cope with stressful life events. The purpose of the current study is to see if God-mediated control beliefs perform this stress-buffering function. God-mediated control refers to the belief that people work together with God to reduce the effects of unwanted stressors in their lives. An effort is made to probe this relationship more deeply by seeing whether the stress moderating function of God-mediated control beliefs varies across levels of educational attainment. Findings from a recent nationwide survey suggest that strong God-mediated control beliefs reduce the magnitude of the relationship between stress and depressive symptoms, anxiety, happiness, and hope, but only among more highly educated study participants. In contrast, God-mediated control beliefs do not appear to influence the relationship between stress and distress/well-being among study participants with lower levels of educational attainment.     

Are cognitive biases associated with body image concerns similar between cultures?

This experimental investigation examined judgment and memory biases associated with body image concerns in American and Chinese young adult samples. In Study 1, 50 American university students (43 female, 7 males) screened into groups high and low in self-reported concerns about body size and weight engaged in a computer-based experiment involving the evaluation and later recognition of randomly presented fat and thin body words and matched control words. Participants high in reported body image concerns judged certain kinds of fat words more negatively and remembered them more accurately than individuals low in perceived body image disturbances. In general, significant group differences remained, after controlling for BMI. In contrast, groups did not differ in judgment or memory of thin words or control words. This pattern of differences was partially replicated in similar groups from the People's Republic of China (52 female, 7 male). Cross-cultural comparisons of responses to the subset of fat and thin words used in both experiments indicated the American sample evaluated fat words more negatively and was faster in responding to fat words than the Chinese sample, although there were no cultural differences in responses to thin words. Findings support the hypothesis that information-processing biases related to body image problems are specific to these concerns within samples from both Western and non-Western cultures, albeit cultural differences in responses to fat stimuli were also identified.     

Considering an affect regulation framework for examining the association between body dissatisfaction and positive body image in Black older adolescent females: Does body mass index matter?

The present study provided an initial evaluation of an affect regulation model describing the association between body dissatisfaction and two contemporary measures of positive body image among 247 Black college-bound older adolescent females. We further tested whether possessing a higher body mass index (BMI) would strengthen these associations. Self-reported height and weight were used to calculate BMI. Respondents also completed a culturally-sensitive figure rating scale along with assessments of body appreciation and body image flexibility. Results indicated a robust positive association between the two measures of positive body image; BMI was the strongest predictor of both body appreciation and body image flexibility with body size discrepancy (current minus ideal) contributing incremental variance to both models tested. Implications for improving our understanding of the association between positive and negative body image and bolstering positive body image to promote health-protective behaviors among Black young women at this developmental juncture are discussed.     

Narcissism and the non-equivalence of self-esteem measures: A matter of dominance?

Previous research reveals a substantial degree of variability in the extent to which narcissism (as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory or NPI; Emmons, 1987) and self-esteem (measured using a variety of self-report scales) are associated. Data from 329 college students provided support for the hypothesis that the variability in associations between narcissism and different measures of self-esteem may be explained in part by the degree to which a given self-esteem measure is related to dominance. These results have important implications for research on narcissism and self-esteem, as well as the broader issue of how self-esteem is conceptualized and measured in psychological research.     

Does high self-esteem foster narcissism? Testing the bidirectional relationships between self-esteem,narcissistic admiration and rivalry

We examined the longitudinal associations between self-esteem and narcissism in a three-wave panel study (N = 557). In a standard cross-lagged panel model, self-esteem had a positive bidirectional relationship with narcissistic admiration. Narcissistic rivalry predicted increases in narcissistic admiration, but the corresponding reciprocal cross-lagged effect was not significant, nor were the cross-lagged associations between self-esteem and narcissistic rivalry. However, a random-intercept cross-lagged panel model (which partitions between- and within-person variance) failed to identify significant cross-lagged relationships between self-esteem and admiration or rivalry. Rather, self-esteem correlated positively with narcissistic admiration (but not rivalry) only at the trait level. Furthermore, we observed positive bidirectional associations between admiration and rivalry, suggesting that the within-person fluctuations in these two sub-dimensions of narcissism mutually reinforce each other.     

Social likeability,conformity, and body talk: Does fat talk have a normative rival in female body image conversations?

Fat talk, dialogues among women involving negative body-focused discussions, was studied as a function of conformity and social likeability through the use of four vignettes depicting young women in conversation. Using a 2 (body presentation style of the group: negative or positive) × 2 (body presentation style of the target, Jenny: negative or positive) factorial design, 215 college women (92.1% non-Hispanic Caucasian) read one of four vignettes in a classroom setting and made ratings on a social likeability scale. Participants’ personal ratings of Jenny's likeability were higher when she spoke positively about her body, whereas they expected the other group members in the vignette to like Jenny more when she conformed to the group's body presentation style. This study is the first to support two competing norms for women's body image—the existing norm to fat talk versus a newly documented norm that some women like others who express body acceptance.     

Mirror,mirror - Does the fitness club industry have a body image problem?

The primary aim of the present study was to report longitudinal data on body image across the first year of gym engagement. Second, we aimed to compare body image among those who reported regular use of the fitness club (≥2 sessions/week) with those who did not (≤1exercise session/week or no exercise/dropout), as well as between genders and Body Mass Index groups (BMI<25 and BMI≥25) at membership start-up. Novice exercisers (n = 250) from 25 fitness clubs in Oslo (Norway) responded to an online questionnaire at start-up, three, six and 12-months follow-up, with a high response rate (100%, 89.6%, 85.2% and 74.8%). The questionnaire covered background/health information and exercise involvement. A modified Multidimensional Body Self Relations Questionnaire Appearance Scales (MBSRQ-AS), comprising five subscales (appearance satisfaction, appearance investment, weight-related attitude, self-classified weight and Body Areas Satisfaction Scale (BASS), was used to gather repeated measures of body image. Data were analysed separately for each subscale and as a body image total score, using a linear mixed model adjusted for baseline, gender and BMI. We found differences in body image total score reported at six months when compared with onset (0.04, 95% CI 0.005–0.078, p = 0.024), whereas the subscale appearance satisfaction was different at three (0.08, 95% CI 0.015–0.164, p = 0.018), six (0.11, 95% CI 0.039–0.197, p = 0.003) and twelve (0.10, 95% CI 0.021–0.179, p = 0.013) months when compared with onset. Also the subscale BASS was different at three (0.17, 95% CI 0.009–0.255, p < 0.001), six (0.21, 95% CI 0.127–0.301, p < 0.001) and twelve (0.26, 95% CI 0.143–0.388, p < 0.001). Participants adhering to regular exercise (≥2 times weekly) had better outcomes on total body image than those who exercised less frequently or irregularly (three: 2.94 vs. 2.83, p = 0.027 and 12-months: 2.97 vs. 2.85, p = 0.028).At membership start-up, being male (p < 0.001) and having a BMI<25 (p = 0.003), were the strongest factors associated with reporting a higher score on total body image. In conclusion, we found improved body area and appearance satisfaction in novice exercisers across the first year of fitness club membership.     

Investing in the ideal: Does objectified body consciousness mediate the association between appearance contingent self-worth and appearance self-esteem in women?

Appearance contingent self-worth has been shown to be associated with low appearance self-esteem but little is known about the role that objectified body consciousness may play in this relationship. The purpose of the present study with 465 female undergraduates was to examine whether objectified body consciousness mediates the association between appearance contingent self-worth and low levels of appearance self-esteem. This was accomplished using a multiple mediation model to examine whether components of objectified body consciousness (i.e., body surveillance, body shame, and control beliefs) play unique roles in the connection between appearance contingent self-worth and appearance self-esteem. Results showed that body surveillance and body shame were significant mediators of the connection between appearance contingent self-worth and low levels of appearance self-esteem. Discussion focuses on the implications of these results for the ways in which appearance contingent self-worth may promote heightened body consciousness and possibly contribute to low levels of appearance self-esteem.     

Does matter really matter? Computer simulations,experiments, and materiality

A number of recent discussions comparing computer simulation and traditional experimentation have focused on the significance of “materiality.” I challenge several claims emerging from this work and suggest that computer simulation studies are material experiments in a straightforward sense. After discussing some of the implications of this material status for the epistemology of computer simulation, I consider the extent to which materiality (in a particular sense) is important when it comes to making justified inferences about target systems on the basis of experimental results.     

Fathers,daughters, and self-objectification: Does bonding style matter?

As women are exposed to objectification and the “male gaze,” they self-objectify, which predicts negative psychological outcomes. Given the centrality of the “male gaze,” positive father/child relationships may have a buffering effect. In this study, women (N = 447) completed a survey measuring paternal bonding (care and overprotection), self-objectification, negative eating attitudes, and depression. Women were categorized into four groups based on bonding style. Analyses indicated an interaction such that women who reported high care and low overprotection reported the fewest negative eating attitudes. A path model was tested for each group. The fit of the high care/high overprotection group's model significantly differed from that of the high care/low overprotection group. The relationships between body surveillance and shame as well as between shame and negative eating attitudes were stronger in the former group. These findings suggest that caring but overprotective fathers may exacerbate the negative effects of body surveillance and shame.     

Patterns of extreme responses to items in self-esteem scales: Does conceptualisation and item content matter?

Self-esteem (SE) scales are particularly susceptible for various response-sets. Systematic response alterations, often mirroring self-presentational item characteristics, can be triggered differentially depending on the content of items in a scale. The present study examined extreme responding to items in the global SE scale (Rosenberg, 1965) and the basic SE scale (Forsman & Johnson, 1996). The results showed that global SE scores were determined to a higher extent by extreme responses, in particular rejecting negative item content, than basic self-esteem scores. The implications of self-presentation contra self-esteem for an asymmetry in response patterns between the two scales are discussed.     

Does short-term fasting promote changes in state body image?

Fasting, or going a significant amount of time without food, is a predictor of eating pathology in at-risk samples. The current study examined whether acute changes in body image occur after an episode of fasting in college students. Furthermore, it evaluated whether individual difference variables might inform the relationship between fasting and shifts in body image. Participants (N = 186) included male (44.7%) and female college students who completed the Body Image States Scale (BISS) and other eating-related measures before a 24-h fast. Participants completed the BISS again after fasting. While no overall changes in BISS scores emerged during the study, some individuals evidenced body image improvement. Baseline levels of disinhibition and self-reported fasting at least once per week uniquely predicted improvement in body image. Individual difference variables may play a role in how fasting could be reinforced by shifts in body image.     

Does social support reduce distress caused by ostracism? It depends on the level of one's self-esteem

We hypothesized that the companionship of a close other would buffer the negative effect of ostracism for people with a strong sense of self-esteem. Participants were either included or ostracized during the experiment with the presence of a close other or a stranger. We measured the participants' self-esteem and feelings about the ostracism or inclusion experience. Consistent with our predictions, participants accompanied by a close other were less threatened by the ostracism experience than those accompanied by a stranger; furthermore, the buffering effect of a social companion on ostracism was more apparent among participants high in self-esteem but not among those low in self-esteem. The implications of these findings for ostracism research were discussed.     

Personality assessment: Does the medium matter? No

The equivalence of an Internet administration of personality tests with two other administration formats was assessed using Item Response Theory (IRT) and various other statistical methods. The analyses were conducted on measures of Neuroticism, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. A total of 728 participants took part in the study. Participants were randomly assigned to one of three administrative conditions: paper-and-pencil, proctored computer lab, and unproctored Internet. Analyses with IRT, factor analysis, criterion-related validity, and mean differences supported the equivalence of Internet and traditional paper-and-pencil administrations of personality tests.     

Self-forgiveness and well-being: Does divine forgiveness matter?

ABSTRACT

A reliable association exists between self-forgiveness and well-being. But self-forgiveness and its correlates will not be fully understood without considering forgiveness by God or divine forgiveness, especially in light of the fact that the majority of the population identifies as religious. This study therefore examined the role of divine forgiveness in understanding the association between self-forgiveness and well-being using data collected from 435 young adults. Because well-being is not the absence of distress, this study examined whether self-forgiveness and divine forgiveness relate to psychological well-being and distress in the same way. Self-forgiveness and divine forgiveness were independently related to psychological well-being and distress even with religiosity statistically controlled. Divine forgiveness also moderated the relationship between self-forgiveness and psychological distress in that perceived forgiveness by God was associated with fewer depressive symptoms at lower but not higher levels of self-forgiveness. The implications for future research are outlined.     

Does the body image exist in three dimensions? The study of visual mental representation of a body and a nonbody object

Do the mental images of 3-dimensional objects recreate the depth characteristics of the original objects? This investigation of the characteristics of mental images utilized a novel boundary-detection task that required participants to relate a pair of crosses to the boundary of an image mentally projected onto a computer screen. 48 female participants with body attitudes within expected normal range were asked to image their own body and a familiar object from the front and the side. When the visual mental image was derived purely from long-term memory, accuracy was better than chance for the front (64%) and side (63%) of the body and also for the front (55%) and side (68%) of the familiar nonbody object. This suggests that mental images containing depth and spatial information may be generated from information held in long-term memory. Pictorial exposure to views of the front or side of the objects was used to investigate the representations from which this 3-dimensional shape and size information is derived. The results are discussed in terms of three possible representational formats and argue that a front-view 2 1/2-dimensional representation mediates the transfer of information from long-term memory when depth information about the body is required.     

The valence and the functions of autobiographical memories: Does intensity matter?

Autobiographical memories serve psychosocial functions in daily life and the use of memories is related to their valence. In the present study, we examined whether functions are also related to the intensity of positive and negative memories. Our sample included 110 participants (57–89 years of age). Memories were prompted with 30 emotionally neutral cue words. Participants rated the emotional quality of each memory and indicated how frequently they had recalled it for self-continuity, directing behavior, social-bonding, and mood-enhancement. We used multilevel modeling to test whether individual differences in the use of memories can explain why individuals recall different numbers of positive and negative memories as well as memories high or low in intensity. Each function revealed its specific pattern regarding valence and intensity but also regarding within-person and between-person effects. Mood-enhancement showed the strongest relations, which points to the importance of considering emotion regulation as a function of autobiographical memory.