Sexual behaviour in injecting drug users

A survey of the self-reported sexual behaviors of 1239 intravenous drug users recruited off the streets in Sydney, Australia, highlighted the impact of both sexual orientation and gender on the risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection in this population. The sample included 908 men (mean age, 27.9 years) and 331 women (mean age, 26.3 years), the majority of whom were unemployed or receiving social security benefits. Among male respondents, 50 were homosexual, 117 were bisexual, and 719 were heterosexual; for females these numbers were 10, 95, and 220, respectively. Oral and vaginal sex were the most commonly reported practices among heterosexuals, while homosexuals primarily reported manual stimulation and oro-genital contact. The regular sexual partners of male intravenous drug users tended not to be addicts, while female drug users were primarily involved with male partners who also abused drugs. Among male respondents, condom use was highest among homosexuals, followed by bisexuals, and lowest among heterosexuals; there were no significant differences by sexual orientation in female respondents' condom use. Overall, condoms were most likely to be utilized in anal sex and least likely in the case of oral sex. Condom use was about 5% lower when a regular as opposed to casual sexual partner was involved. Most of the 64 HIV-positive respondents were homosexuals, suggesting that sexual orientation rather than drug abuse was the primary risk factor. Given the finding that there is substantial variation in condom use among subgroups of intravenous drug abusers, it is recommended that HIV prevention programs adopt a diversified rather than uniform approach.     

The role of interference produced by conflicting associations in contextual control

In 2 experiments, participants completed a computer task in which they judged the probability of outcomes occurring (e.g., flowers growing, a bug infestation) given cues (e.g., treatment of soil with a fictitious garden product). In each 2-phase experiment, cue X was associated with 1 outcome in Phase 1 and with a 2nd outcome in Phase 2. When the outcome in Phase 1 (e.g., X led to a bug infestation) was replaced in Phase 2 (e.g., X led to flowers growing), contextual control was observed (Experiments 1 and 2). Information learned in each phase was less likely to be retrieved when the cue was tested in a context different from the 1 where training occurred. When the 2nd outcome did not conflict with information acquired in the 1st phase (e.g., X led to flowers and bugs), no contextual control was observed (Experiment 2). Acquiring a 2nd association to X resulted in contextual control only when it conflicted with an association learned earlier. The authors discuss the role of interference produced when conflicting information is acquired in establishing contextual control.     

Modification of the punishing effects of psychoactive drugs in rats by previous drug experience.

In Experiment 1, it was shown that chronic prior exposure to amphetamine attenuated the conditioned avoidance of saccharin that was produced by both amphetamine and morphine during gustatory conditioning trials; the relationship between morphine and amphetamine was somewhat anomalous because of their pharmacological dissimilarity. The relationship was also asymmetrical, since in Experiment 2, chronic prior exposure to morphine failed to mitigate avoidance conditioning by amphetamine but was effective in attenuating conditioning by morphine itself. In a third experiment, it was found that prior treatment with chlordiazepoxide attenuated saccharin avoidance conditioned by chlordiazepoxide but not by amphetamine or morphine. The findings were related to Parker, Failor, and Weidman's hypothesis, based on findings with morphine, concerning the development of conditioned preferences for substances associated with the repletion of artificially induced biological needs. It was suggested that the findings were best interpreted as a reflection of drug tolerance rather than conditioned preference.     

Depression as measured by the Beck Depression Inventory-II among injecting drug users

This study conducts a confirmatory factor analysis of the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) with a sample of 598 individuals who reported recent injecting drug use. Findings indicate that out of four models tested, the best model for this sample is a three-factor solution (somatic, affective, and cognitive) previously reported by Buckley, Parker, and Heggie. The findings that nearly 50% of participants provided BDI-II scores indicating significant depressive symptomatology reveals that these individuals are in need of treatment for their psychiatric symptoms as well as substance use. Somatic symptoms are endorsed more strongly than affective or cognitive symptoms of depression, suggesting a possible, but yet poorly defined, relationship between depressive symptomatology and drug use that centers on shared somatic symptomatology.     

The impact of training in sexual counselling for drugs workers upon HIV related risk behaviours and attitudes among injecting drug users

Forty-five drug-using clients attending two drug services at a London hospital were interviewed before and after a training programme on sexual counselling delivered to staff working at the two units. Following staff training, clients reported increased interaction during counselling with staff on sexual issues. Results indicated that drug use and injecting behaviours were unaflected by the stag training and that changes in sexual behaviour were modest. Attitudinal changes were more substantial with more positive attitudes emerging to limiting the number of sexual partners and towards the use of condoms. The value of observed attitudinal changes and the importance of decision-making processes of clients for harm minimization are discussed     

Ultrasounds produced by rats accompany decreases in intraspecific fighting

Male intruder rats were placed individually into the cage of an established resident on 2 occasions separated by a 7–8 day interval. Residents readily attacked intruders and both animals lost weight during the first encounter. In contrast, no serious fighting occurred on the second encounter, and both intruders and residents maintained their body weight during the 24-hr test. Observation of the intruder's behavior during the first 30 min of each encounter indicated that defensive-submissive postures represent a response to an attack that only temporarily inhibits aggression whereas the emission of 22 kHz calls by the intruder is associated with a relatively permanent decrease in the resident animal's aggressive response.     

Bidirectional associations in humans and rats

In 1 experiment with humans and 3 experiments with rats, the authors sought evidence of temporal integration of independently acquired temporal relationships, including forward and backward temporal associations. The experiments were designed and analyzed in the framework of the temporal coding hypothesis (e.g., L. D. Matzel, F. P. Held, & R. R. Miller, 1988; H. I. Savastano & R. R. Miller, 1998) as a strategy toward illuminating the use of forward and backward temporal associations and assessing the directional nature of these temporal associations. The results obtained suggest that the temporal content of learning about paired events involves a single bidirectional association instead of 2 independent unidirectional, forward and backward, associations.     

Evidence for inhibitory associations between the unique elements of two compound flavours

In each of two experiments, rats were pre-exposed to two flavoured solutions, saline-lemon and sucrose-lemon. For group ALT, trials with one solution alternated with trials with the other. Group BLK received all trials with one solution in a block, before any trials with the other. An associative theory suggests that the alternating, but not the blocked, schedule would establish an inhibitory association between sucrose and saline. To provide a retardation test of this inhibition, some animals in each group were then given a single pairing of saline and sucrose, experienced sodium depletion, and were finally tested for their consumption of sucrose. Sodium depletion increased consumption of sucrose more in group BLK than in group ALT. In groups given no saline-sucrose pairing, sodium depletion had only a small effect on sucrose consumption, which was the same in both groups. After multiple pairings of saline and sucrose, sodium depletion had an equally large effect on sucrose consumption in both ALT and BLK groups. These results imply that alternating pre-exposure to two compound solutions does establish an inhibitory association between their unique elements, and thus provide support for an associative theory of perceptual learning.     

Alternating exposure to two compound flavors creates inhibitory associations between their unique features

Rats were exposed to two compound solutions, saline-lemon and sucrose-lemon. In Group ALT, trials with one solution alternated with trials with the other. Group BLK received all trials with one solution before any trials with the other. Previous retardation tests had implied that only alternating exposure would establish sucrose as an inhibitor of saline. To provide a complementary summation test for this inhibition, in Experiment 1, all the animals received pairings of peppermint and saline and were tested for consumption of peppermint-sucrose under sodium depletion. Consumption was increased by sodium depletion only in Group BLK. In Experiment 2, a retardation test was used to show that presentation of saline-lemon before sucrose-lemon on each exposure day would establish sucrose as an inhibitor of saline. Neither exposure to sucrose-lemon before saline-lemon nor alternating exposure to sucrose and saline alone had the same effect. These results provide support for an associative theory of perceptual learning that suggests that exposure to complex stimuli aids later discrimination partially as a result of establishing inhibitory associations between their unique elements.     

Attachment representations and adoption: associations between maternal states of mind and emotion narratives in previously maltreated children

This paper reports on associations observed between Adult Attachment Interviews (AAIs) obtained from adoptive mothers, and emotional themes appearing in doll play narratives obtained from their recently adopted children. The children, aged 4?-?8 years, carried into their adoptive placements a history of consistently serious maltreatment, including neglect and abuse. Results reveal strong and significant influences of maternal state of mind regarding attachment upon their adopted children's story-completions. Mothers whose AAIs were judged insecure (either dismissing or preoccupied) were likely to have adopted children who, three months after placement, provided story-completions with higher levels of aggressiveness as compared to the stories provided by children adopted by mothers with secure-autonomous AAIs. Children whose adoptive mothers provided AAIs indicative of unresolved (as opposed to resolved) mourning regarding past loss or trauma provided story completions with higher scores for emotional themes such as 'parent appearing child-like' and 'throwing out or throwing away'. Results also include a qualitative section that provides narrative excerpts of maternal AAIs and children's story-completions. Discussion concerns the contribution these findings make to the literature on intergenerational transmission of attachment patterns, and the implications these findings have for child clinical work and social policy. Cet article rend compte des rapports observés entre, d'une part, les Entretiens d'Attachement chez l'Adulte auxquels participaient des mères adoptives et, d'autre part, la thématique émotionnelle évoquée lors des récits de jeux de poupée fournis par leurs enfants, adoptés depuis peu. Ces enfants, âgés de 4 à 7 ans, reportent dans leur placement adoptif leur histoire antérieure de maltraitance; constante et sévère, celle-ci englobe carences graves et abus. Les résultats montrent l'influence considérable et significative, sur la manière dont les enfants adoptés terminent leurs récits, des états psychiques maternels par rapport à l'attachement. En ce qui concerne les méres dont le type d'attachement, évalué lors de l'Entretien, est jugé précaire (peu attentionné ou préoccupé), on constate, après trois mois de placement, que l'enfant adopté tend à fournir des fins de récit dont le niveau d'agressivité est plus élevé que celui donné par des enfants adoptés par des mères chez qui le type d'attachement est jugé sûr et autonome. Si l'évaluation de l'attachement chez la mère renvoie à l'existence de deuils non élaborés et de traumatismes, la thématique émotionnelle présentée par son enfant dans ces récits est de type "parent infantile" ou "jeter/rejeter". Les données rapportées comportent une dimension qualitative qui met en parallèle des extraits des Entretiens d'Attachement maternels et les fins de récit proposées par leurs enfants respectifs. Les auteurs discutent ensuite de la contribution que ces résultats pourraient apporter aux travaux concernant la transmission intergénérationnelle des modèles d'attachement. Les implications de cette étude pour le travail clinique auprès des enfants et pour la politique sociale au sens large sont également débattues. Questo articolo presenta le associazioni osservate tra l'Adult Attachment Interviews (AAIs) sottoposto a madri adottive e tematiche emotive emerse nelle narrative di gioco con le bambole espresse dai loro bambini recentemente adottati. I bambini di eta' dai 4 ai 7 anni portano nelle loro famiglie adottive storie di severo maltrattamento, che includono l'abuso e negligenza. I risultati rivelano che lo stato mentale materno in relazione all'attaccamento ha un' influenza forte e significativa sul completamento delle storie dei bambini adottati. Madri che all'AAI risultavano insicure (sia superficiali che troppo preoccupate) avevano alta probabilita' di aver adottato bambini che, tre mesi dopo l'arrivo, fornivano storie con un maggior livello di aggressivita' paragonato alle storie fornite da bambini adottati da madri con attaccamento all'AAI classificato come sicuro-autonomo. Bambini le cui madri adottive risultano all'AAI avere dei lutti non elaborati (invece che elaborati) riguardanti perdite del passato o traumi producono storie che danno un punteggio piu' alto nelle tematiche emotive come per esempio 'il genitore e' infantile' e 'che respinge o rifiuta'. I risultati comprendono anche una sezione qualitativa che riporta parti delle narrative delle madri al AAI e delle storie raccontate dai bambini. La discussione si sofferma sul contributo che questi risultati portano alla letteratura sulla trasmissione intergenerazionale di modelli di attaccamento e sulle implicazioni che tali risultati hanno per il lavoro clinico con bambini e per le politiche sociali. Dieser Artikel berichtet von Verbindugen zwischen Erwachsenen-Bindungsinterviews (AAIs), die von Adoptivmüttern erhalten wurden und emotionalen Themen, die inm Puppenspielnarrativen bei Kindern, die vor kurzem adoptiert worden waren, auftraten. Die Kinder zwischen 4 und 7 Jahren brachten in ihre Adoptionsplätze eine Geschichte von durchgehend ernster Misshandlung, einschliesslich Vernachlässigung und Missbrauch, mit. Die Ergebnisse zeigten starke und signifikante Einflüsse des mütterlichen Gemütszustands bezüglich Bindung auf die Fertigstellung der Geschichten der Adoptivkinder. Mütter, deren AAI als unsicher ( entweder abwehrend oder besorgt) eingeschätzt wurden, hatten eher Adoptivkinder, die drei Monate nach ihrer Plazierung Geschichten mit einem höherem Grad an Aggressivität herstellten, verglichen mit Geschichten, die von Kindern produziert wurden, die von Müttern mit sicherer-autonomer Bindung adoptiert worden waren. Kinder, deren Adoptivmütter AAIs zeigten, die indikativ für unverarbeitetes (im Gegensatz zu verarbeitetem) Trauern bezüglich vergangener Verluste oder Trauma waren, produzierten Geschichten mit höherem Zahlen von emotionalen Themen wie etwa 'Elternteil, das wie ein Kind erscheint' und 'hinauswerfen und wegwerfen'. Die Ergebnisse schliessen auch einen qualitative Abschnitt ein, in dem Exzerpte der Narrative der mütterlichen Interviews und der Geschichten der Kinder dargestellt werden. Die Diskussion dreht sich um den Beitrag, den diese Ergebnisse zur Literatur der Intergenerationsweitergabe von Bindungsmustern leistet und den Implikationen, die diese Ergebnisse für die klinische Arbeit mit Kindern und für die Sozialpolitik haben.     

Ethical issues in research on preventing HIV infection among injecting drug users

The ethical issues in conducting research on preventing HIV infection are among the most complex of any area of human subjects research. This article is an update of a 1987 article that addressed potential conflicts between research design and ethics with respect to AIDS prevention among injecting drug users. The present article reviews current ethical issues that arise in the design and conduct of HIV/AIDS prevention research focused on injecting drug users. Disclaimer: The content of this publication is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the views of the Beth Israel Medical Center or Johns Hopkins University.     

Nothing ventured nothing gained: Strong associations between reward sensitivity and two measures of Machiavellianism

Recent theoretical work on the Life History Theory and empirical findings on Machiavellianism suggest that Machiavellian individuals are motivated to acquire short-term benefits and prioritize situations with high potential rewards. Accordingly, in our study, we investigated the associations between reward/punishment sensitivity and Machiavellian interpersonal tactics with self-report measures. Moreover, as a first attempt, we investigated the correlates of Machiavellianism and the behavioral preference for rewards with the IOWA Gambling task (IGT). The results showed robust positive associations of Machiavellian behavioral characteristics with Sensitivity to Reward, and a moderately negative correlation with Sensitivity to Punishment. This finding was further supported by IGT: Machiavellians tended to make reward-oriented decisions.     

Developmental changes in associations between auditory-visual events

The goal of the present study was twofold: to examine the influence of two amodal properties, co-location and temporal synchrony, on infants' associating a sight with a sound, and to determine if the relative influence of these properties on crossmodal learning changes with age. During familiarization 2-, 4-, 6- and 8-month-olds were presented two toys and a sound, with sights and sounds varying with respect to co-location and temporal synchrony. Following each familiarization phase infants were given a paired preference test to assess their learning of sight-sound associations. Measures of preferential looking revealed age-related changes in the influence of co-location and temporal synchrony on infants' learning sight-sound associations. At all ages, infants could use temporal synchrony and co-location as a basis for associating an auditory with a visual event and, in the absence of temporal synchrony, co-location was sufficient to support crossmodal learning. However, when these cues conflicted there were developmental changes in the influence of these cues on infants' learning auditory-visual associations. At 2 and 4 months infants associated the sounds with the toy that moved in synchrony with the sound's rhythm despite extreme violation of co-location of this sight and sound. In contrast, 6- and 8-month-olds did not associate a specific toy with the sound when co-location and synchrony information conflicted. The findings highlight the unique and interactive effects of distinct amodal properties on infants' learning arbitrary crossmodal relations. Possible explanations for the age shift in performance are discussed.     

Children's associations between space and pitch are differentially shaped by language

Musical properties, such as auditory pitch, are not expressed in the same way across cultures. In some languages, pitch is expressed in terms of spatial height (high vs. low), whereas others rely on thickness vocabulary (thick = low frequency vs. thin = high frequency). We investigated how children represent pitch in the face of this variable linguistic input by examining the developmental trajectory of linguistic and non-linguistic space-pitch associations in children who acquire Dutch (a height-pitch language) or Turkish (a thickness-pitch language). Five-year-olds, 7-year-olds, 9-year-olds, and 11-year-olds were tested for their understanding of pitch terminology and their associations of spatial dimensions with auditory pitch when no language was used. Across tasks, thickness-pitch associations were more robust than height-pitch associations. This was true for Turkish children, and also Dutch children not exposed to thickness-pitch vocabulary. Height-pitch associations, on the other hand, were not reliable—not even in Dutch-speaking children until age 11—the age when they demonstrated full comprehension of height-pitch terminology. Moreover, Turkish-speaking children reversed height-pitch associations. Taken together, these findings suggest thickness-pitch associations are acquired in similar ways by children from different cultures, but the acquisition of height-pitch associations is more susceptible to linguistic input. Overall, then, despite cross-cultural stability in some components, there is variation in how children come to represent musical pitch, one of the building blocks of music.

Research Highlights

• Children from diverse cultures differ in their understanding of music vocabulary and in their nonlinguistic associations between spatial dimensions and auditory pitch.
• Height-pitch mappings are acquired late and require additional scaffolding from language, whereas thickness-pitch mappings are acquired early and are less susceptible to language input.
• Space-pitch mappings are not static from birth to adulthood, but change over development, suggesting music cognition is shaped by cross-cultural experience.