Evolution, stress, and sensitive periods: the influence of unpredictability in early versus late childhood on sex and risky behavior

According to a recent evolutionary life history model of development proposed by Ellis, Figueredo, Brumbach, and Schlomer (2009), growing up in harsh versus unpredictable environments should have unique effects on life history strategies in adulthood. Using data from the Minnesota Longitudinal Study of Risk and Adaptation, we tested how harshness and unpredictability experienced in early childhood (age 0-5) versus in later childhood (age 6-16) uniquely predicted sexual and risky behavior at age 23. Findings showed that the strongest predictor of both sexual and risky behavior was an unpredictable environment between ages 0 and 5. Individuals exposed to more unpredictable, rapidly changing environments during the first 5 years of life displayed a faster life history strategy at age 23 by having more sexual partners, engaging in more aggressive and delinquent behaviors, and being more likely to be associated with criminal activities. In contrast, exposure to either harsh environments or experiencing unpredictability in later childhood (age 6-16) was, for the most part, not significantly related to these outcomes at age 23. Viewed together, these findings show that unpredictable rather than merely harsh childhood environments exert unique effects on risky behavior later in life consistent with a faster life history strategy. The findings also suggest that there is a developmentally sensitive period for assessing environmental unpredictability during the first 5 years of life.     

Does Economic Development Affect Life Satisfaction? A Spatial–Temporal Contextual Analysis in China

Social context affects people’s life satisfaction because it provides a natural reference for evaluating their own socioeconomic standing. Given their reference role, social contexts operationalized by space versus time may have very different implications. Our hypothesis is that spatial variation in economic development has little impact on life satisfaction as individuals living in different locales are unlikely to experience this variation personally, but that short-term temporal changes in economic development, on the other hand, do have an impact, as individuals in a given locale experience these changes directly. These two very different implications of spatial versus temporal social contexts are tested with an analysis of repeated survey data in 60 counties of China from 2005 to 2010. The results show that life satisfaction does not vary much with regional differences in economic development but responds positively to the local level of economic development over time. That is, the contextual effects of economic development vary greatly depending on how social context is operationalized. Temporal context matters far more than regional context where individuals’ life satisfaction is concerned.     

Advances in prevention and treatment of cerebral palsy

In recent years there have been a number of advances in understanding of predisposing and protective factors in the development of cerebral palsy in infants. Multiple gestation births, maternal infection, and maternal and fetal thrombophilic conditions all predispose to the development of CP in the infant. Opportunities for prevention of CP may develop from an improved understanding of these factors and their mechanisms of operation. Similar progress has been made in the evaluation of treatments for CP and the effects of these treatments on the individual's impairment, function, and disability. Selective posterior rhizotomy and Botulinum toxin A are now widely used in the treatment of spasticity. The challenge remains to determine how effectively these promising interventions can alter long-term function and quality of life outcomes in children and adults with CP.     

Maternal psychological functioning mediates the association between infant behavior and subsequent child psychological functioning

Symptoms of psychopathology that onset during childhood are often more severe, chronic, and difficult to treat than symptoms that first appear later in life. Maternal psychological symptoms are associated with the development of psychological symptoms in children. However, less research focuses on whether children’s behaviors may presage maternal psychological difficulties that, in turn, contribute to the child’s own psychological functioning. Identifying psychological difficulties in families and intervening in early life may lower risk for intergenerational transmission of subsequent psychological symptoms. Even at non-clinical or normative levels, exploring transactional models of parent-child behavior and psychological functioning may provide insight into the development of later psychological difficulties or symptoms within families. Thus, the current study examined whether difficult infant behavior (e.g., fussiness, unpredictability) is associated with future maternal psychological difficulties and subsequently, the child’s own psychological functioning in early childhood. The current sample includes 847 dyads from a multi-wave birth cohort in England (‘Born in Bradford’), who identified as predominantly non-White (62.2%) and socioeconomically diverse. Mothers reported on their child’s behaviors at 6 months, their own psychological functioning during pregnancy and at 18 months postpartum, and their child’s psychological functioning at age 3. Results of a mediation model revealed that the association between infant behavior at 6 months and child psychological functioning at 3 years is partially explained by maternal psychological functioning at 18 months, even after accounting for psychological difficulties during pregnancy, maternal age at birth, child sex, family income, and ethnicity. Post-hoc exploratory analyses revealed that the association between infant behavior, maternal psychological functioning, and subsequent child psychological functioning was significant for Pakistani British families but not White British families. These findings provide preliminary evidence that infant behaviors (e.g., temperament) may presage future maternal psychological difficulties and subsequent child psychological functioning, above and beyond previous maternal psychological functioning. Importantly, these results highlight infant behavior as a potential catalyst for later psychological difficulties within families.     

Scale of Unpredictability Beliefs: Reliability and Validity

Experiencing unpredictability in the environment has a variety of negative outcomes. However, these are difficult to ascertain due to the lack of a psychometrically sound measure of unpredictability beliefs. This article summarizes the development of the Scale of Unpredictability Beliefs (SUB), which assesses perceptions about unpredictability in one's life, in other people, and in the world. In Study I, college students (N = 305) responded to 68 potential items as well as other scales. Exploratory factor analysis yielded three internally consistent subscales (Self, People, and World; 16 items total). Higher SUB scores correlated with more childhood family unpredictability, greater likelihood of parental alcohol abuse, stronger causal uncertainty, and lower self-efficacy. In Study II, a confirmatory factor analysis supported the three-factor solution (N = 186 college students). SUB scores correlated with personality, childhood family unpredictability, and control beliefs. In most instances the SUB predicted family unpredictability and control beliefs beyond existing unpredictability measures. Study III confirmed the factor structure and replicated family unpredictability associations in an adult sample (N = 483). This article provides preliminary support for this new multi-dimensional, self-report assessment of unpredictability beliefs, and ideas for future research are discussed.     

Future orientation, impulsivity, and problem behaviors: a longitudinal moderation model

In the current study, based on a sample of 1,873 adolescents between 11.4 and 20.9 years of age from the first 3 waves of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, we investigated the longitudinal effects of future orientation on levels of and developmental changes in problem behaviors, while controlling for the effects by impulsivity; we also tested the moderating effects by future orientation on the impulsivity-problem behaviors link over time. Additionally, we examined future orientation operationalized by items measuring education, marriage, and life domains. Findings based on growth curve analyses provided evidence of longitudinal effects by education and life future orientation on both levels of and developmental changes in problem behaviors; the effect of marriage future orientation was not significant for either test. In addition, only life future orientation moderated the effect by impulsivity on levels of problem behaviors over time. More specifically, impulsivity had a weaker effect on levels of problem behaviors over time for adolescents who reported higher levels of life future orientation.     

早期经验对繁衍策略形成与发展的影响

很多发展心理学家探讨了早期经验与心理行为发展的关系,但这些发展心理学家较少以进化理论为指导来探讨不同发展阶段的心理行为特点。比如,配偶选择、性交往与父母教养等成果颇丰的研究领域均缺少以进化理论为基础的理论解释。与主流的发展心理学研究不同,Draper和Harpending (1982),Ellis (2004),Chisholm (1996) 和Belsky等(1991)以进化理论为基础探讨了早期经验与繁衍策略对儿童心理行为发展的影响。进化观点认为儿童在家庭中获得的早期经验会影响身体发育与未来的繁衍策略。Ellis（2004）已经证实女性青春期确实与早期家庭经验有关     

进化心理学视角下母亲教养行为的代际传承性研究

采用问卷法,从生命史理论的角度探讨母亲教养行为的代价传递性。研究问题一显示,童年期家庭环境的艰苦性和不可预测性不能预测个体成年后的生命史策略,原生家庭母亲的专制型教养方式通过焦虑型依恋行为的中介作用可以间接地负向预测成年女儿的生命史慢策略,原生家庭母亲的民主型教养方式可以直接预测成年女儿的生命史慢策略;研究问题二显示,生命史慢策略在原生家庭母亲的民主型教养行为和成年女儿的合作型协同教养行为之间起着完全中介作用。     

The effects of prenatal maternal stress on children's cognitive development: Project Ice Storm

There exists considerable research on the effects of prenatal maternal stress on offspring. Animal studies, using random assignment to experimental and control groups, demonstrate the noxious effects of prenatal maternal stress on physical, behavioural and cognitive development. The generalizability of these results to humans is problematic given that cognitive attributions moderate reactions to stressors. In humans, researchers have relied upon maternal anxiety or exposure to life events as proxies for the stressors used with animals. Yet, the associations between maternal anxiety or potentially non-independent life events and problems in infants are confounded by genetic transmission of temperament from mother to child. We summarize the literature on prenatal maternal stress and infant cognitive development, leading to the conclusion that the human literature lacks the ability to separate the effects of the objective exposure to a stressor and the mother's subjective reaction. We then describe our prospective Project Ice Storm in which we are following 150 children who were exposed in utero to a natural disaster. We demonstrate significant effects of the objective severity of exposure on cognitive and language development at age two years with important moderating effects of the timing during pregnancy. The implications of our findings are discussed.     

生命早期环境不可预测性对过度进食的影响:基于生命史理论

在生命史理论的视角下, 本研究通过两个研究揭示了生命早期环境不可预测性对过度进食的影响及其作用机制。研究1招募处于生命早期阶段的91名初中生(年龄12~14岁), 采用饱食进食(Eating in the absence of hunger, EAH)范式, 结果发现生命早期环境不可预测性能够显著正向预测个体饱食状态下的高热量食物选择(即过度进食); 研究2招募新冠病毒疾病(COVID-19)暴发背景下301名武汉市居民(高死亡威胁组)和179名其他省市居民(控制组) (年龄18~60岁)为被试, 通过问卷法回溯性地测量生命早期环境不可预测性并探究其影响当前过度进食的机制, 结果发现生命早期环境不可预测性通过生命史策略的中介作用间接影响过度进食。同时, 死亡威胁(新冠病毒疫情)扩大了环境不可预测性通过生命史策略间接影响过度进食的效应, 而社会支持则能缓冲这一效应。研究结果为COVID-19背景下和灾后居民的健康进食干预提供了依据。     

Pregnancy hypertension and the risk for neuropsychological difficulties across early development: A brief report

Despite documented effects on fetal brain development, little is currently known about the relationship between maternal pregnancy hypertension and child neuropsychological outcomes. This brief report examined the association between maternal hypertension during pregnancy and children’s social cognition and executive functioning when children were 18 months, 3 years, and 4.5 years. A community sample of 501 families (23 hypertensive mothers; 478 nonhypertensive) was recruited when children were newborns. Social cognition (including theory of mind [ToM]) and executive functioning (EF) were measured using a battery of age-appropriate standardized and/or observational tasks. Information on pregnancy and prenatal factors were measured via maternal report when children were newborns. After controlling for prenatal and demographic covariates, the presence of hypertension difficulties during pregnancy was associated with all measures of social cognition, ToM, and EF. A secondary analysis comparing the hypertension group (n = 23) to a nonhypertensive matched control group (n = 23) supported the effect of pregnancy hypertension on children’s social-cognitive and EF development. Future studies using obstetrical records are encouraged based on these preliminary findings.     

Family Unpredictability and Psychological Distress in Early Adulthood: The Role of Family Closeness and Coping Mechanisms

Unpredictability within the family environment has been consistently linked to anxiety and depressive symptomology in early adulthood. The current investigation sought to examine how individual and family factors may serve to protect college students from the potentially detrimental effects of growing up with family chaos. A multi-dimensional survey, including measures assessing family unpredictability, coping behavior, anxiety, and depressive symptoms, was administered to 260 (68% female) undergraduate college students. A series of regression models found mediating and moderating effects: the relationship between family unpredictability and psychological distress was explained in part by less family closeness, and this was especially true among students who engaged in more emotion-focused coping. Individuals who used less emotion-focused coping did not appear to suffer from psychological distress associated with family unpredictability. Conversely, task-focused coping did not moderate the association between family unpredictability and psychological distress; yet, individuals who used more task-focused coping, in general, experienced less distress. These findings could be used to inform intervention efforts targeted at improving parenting and caregiving practices as well as the development of campus programs aimed at improving students’ coping strategies.     

Anxiety and Drinking: Are Personal Beliefs Regarding Control and Unpredictability Relevant?

Abstract

Anxiety and drinking problems are fairly common, and it is important to know what factors affect these issues. Previous studies document that control beliefs are associated with anxiety and drinking. Unpredictability beliefs correlate with anxiety, yet whether they relate to drinking is unknown. The present study explored these relationships in a sample of adults (N?=?150; 40.0% female; M?=?34.4?years old) and in a sample of college students (N?=?182; 74.7% female; M?=?18.9 years old). Among adults, unpredictability beliefs correlated with anxiety and control beliefs, but not drinking. Similarly, control beliefs correlated with anxiety but not drinking. Furthermore, anxiety and drinking were uncorrelated. Among undergraduates, unpredictability and control beliefs predicted anxiety, whereas unpredictability (pertaining to the self and others) and internality predicted frequency of drinking. Personal unpredictability beliefs emerged as having the strongest association with anxiety across both samples. Future research and treatment should take into account unpredictability beliefs when addressing anxiety problems.     

儿童早期的母亲生活压力对其5岁行为问题的预测效应：链式中介分析

通过对107名幼儿及其母亲历时5年的5次追踪测量, 考察了儿童早期(9~38个月)母亲生活压力对5岁时儿童行为问题的预测效应及其作用机制。结果发现, 在儿童早期, 母亲生活压力具有相对的稳定性, 但引起母亲生活压力的主要生活事件排序有所变化; 儿童早期母亲生活压力对儿童行为问题的作用机制有两种方式：一方面表现为母亲生活压力对儿童5岁时的情绪症状和品行问题的直接效应; 另一方面表现为通过减少母亲积极养育行为进一步影响儿童情绪症状和同伴问题的间接效应; 此外, 儿童早期母亲生活压力还通过积极养育和儿童努力控制的链式中介作用对儿童过度活跃和亲社会行为产生影响。结论:母亲生活压力对儿童行为问题具有预测效应, 这种效应的机制包括母亲生活压力的直接效应以及通过积极养育、努力控制的间接效应。     

The link between religion and spirituality and psychological adjustment: the mediating role of optimism and social support

Although optimism, social support, religiousness, and spirituality are important predictors of adjustment, rarely have studies examined these variables simultaneously. This study investigated whether optimism and social support mediated the relationship between religiousness and adjustment (distress and life satisfaction) and between spirituality and adjustment. Findings indicate that the relationship between intrinsic religiousness and life satisfaction and between prayer fulfillment and life satisfaction was mediated by optimism and social support. Furthermore, the relationship between religiousness and adjustment varied depending on how religiousness was operationalized and whether positive versus negative adjustment indicators were used. That is, intrinsic religiousness and prayer fulfillment were associated with greater life satisfaction, but extrinsic religiousness was not associated with life satisfaction. These findings were significant even after accounting for covariates (age, gender, ethnicity, social desirability). Results suggest religiousness and spirituality are related but distinct constructs and are associated with adjustment through factors such as social support and optimism.     

Maternal Coping Skills as a Moderator Between Depression and Stressful Life Events: Effects on Children's Behavioral Problems in an Intervention Program

In this study, I report secondary analyses using data from the Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP). The IHDP included parent-targeted as well as child-targeted components as an integral part of early intervention programs. I examined three questions: (1) Do the IHDP early intervention services enhance adaptive maternal coping skills? (2) Do maternal coping skills moderate the relationship between stressful life events and maternal depression? (3) Are maternal coping skills associated with children's behavioral scores? Mothers in the treatment group have more adaptive coping skills than follow-up only mothers, and these effects are moderated by maternal characteristics. Adaptive coping skills moderate the effects of negative life events on maternal depression. Adaptive maternal coping skills are significantly associated with fewer behavioral problems for children at age three. These effects are moderated by the intervention. Implications for early intervention programs are discussed.     

Psychosocial Perspectives on Pregnancy: Prenatal Maternal Stress and Coping

Pregnancy is a momentous life event experienced by most women that involves biomedical and psychosocial changes that are potentially stressful. High levels of maternal stress in pregnancy contribute to adverse fetal, infant, child, and adult outcomes, including cognitive, emotional, neurodevelopmental, and physical health effects. This article discusses definition, measurement, and effects of stress in pregnancy and describes current research questions such as whether the timing or pattern of prenatal stress accentuates its effects and whether prenatal stress accounts for ethnic disparities in adverse birth outcomes in the United States. We review research on the ways that women cope with prenatal stress and research examining associations of coping with maternal emotional state, health, and birth outcomes. Additionally, we describe important factors that improve women's psychosocial adaptation to pregnancy, their health, and their birth outcomes, specifically trait optimism, social support, and physical activity, and we emphasize interventions that utilize these factors.     

Effects of physical and verbal aggression,depression, and anxiety on drinking behavior of married partners: a prospective and retrospective longitudinal examination

In an ethnically diverse sample of 195 married couples, we conducted a latent factor growth analysis to investigate the longitudinal link (4 time points over 4½ years) between marital aggression (physical and verbal aggression self‐ and partner‐reports) and individual internalizing symptoms (depression and anxiety) as they relate to trajectories of alcohol use among husbands and wives. Alcohol use was operationalized as a latent factor with self‐ and partner reports of problem drinking as measured by the Michigan Alcoholism Screening Test and the Alcohol Dependence Scale. Verbal aggression by husbands or wives, by itself, has no effect on their alcohol use over time. In conjunction with depression, however, verbally aggressive husbands do have elevated drinking levels. The effects of husbands' and wives' physical aggression on their own and their partners' drinking behavior were also significant. This study is one of the first to examine the change over time in alcohol use for marital partners as related to marital aggression and internalizing symptoms. Our results shed light on areas of marital functioning (aggression, internalizing, alcohol use) that have not been investigated in conjunction with each other in a longitudinal design. Aggr. Behav. 35:296–312, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Maternal sensory sensitivity and response bias in detecting change in infant facial expressions: maternal self-efficacy and infant gender labeling

This study examined the role of maternal cognitive sets regarding infant gender on maternal response; participants were 69 mothers, each with a 6-month-old infant. Signal detection methodology was used to assess maternal sensory sensitivity and response bias to subtle changes in positive and negative infant facial expressions as a function of maternal self-efficacy, operationalized by low, moderate, and high illusory control, and maternal perceptions of infant gender, experimental manipulated through labeling. For the positive expression, mothers who received the female manipulation exhibited greater sensory sensitivity and responded with a less conservative response bias compared with mothers who received the male manipulation. For the negative expression, only mothers with high illusory control were differentially sensitive to the manipulation; those who received the male manipulation exhibited less sensory sensitivity than those who received the female manipulation. Results are discussed in the context of the gendered socialization of emotion.     

Maternal coping strategies and emotional distress: results of an early intervention program for low birth weight young children

Several questions were examined with Infant Health and Development Program (IHDP) data (N = 843). Are effects of intervention services found for maternal emotional distress and coping strategies, and are these effects different for different groups of mothers? Do maternal distress, coping, and life events moderate (or mediate) the intervention effects reported earlier for children's test scores and behavior problems (IHDP, 1990)? The intervention reduced maternal distress, especially for women with less than a high school education. Maternal distress did not moderate or mediate the influence of the intervention on child outcomes. Maternal coping was not influenced by the intervention and did not moderate the influence of the intervention on child outcomes. Life events moderated the influence of the intervention on children's test scores; the intervention was more effective for children whose mothers had fewer life events.